CHAPTER III
CONCENTRATION
(Samãdhi)

What is Concentration ?

Concentration (samÈdhi) is the profitable unification of the mind on a sense object, or the harmony of consciousnes and its concomitants in focussing on a single sense object.
Concentration stands for ekaggatÈ cetasika, a mental factor, present in wholesome consciousness (kusala citta). EkaggatÈ unites the consciusness and its concomitants to be at the state of one pointedness on a sense object.

In What Sense is it called Concentration ?

It is called concentration in the sense of placing well (samÈdhÈna) . What is this placing well? It is the placing and centering of consciousness and its concomitants harmoniously, evenly and rightly on a single object without letting the mind disperse and scatter towards various objects.
In other words, concentration is the state of mind, by virtue of which consciousness and its concomitants remain harmoniously and rightly on a single object undistracted and unscattered.

What are its Characteristic, Function, Manifestation and proximate Cause?

(i) Characteristic (LakkhaÓa)
Concentration has the characteristic of non-distraction (avikkhepa), that is, it unites its concomitants and places them well on a sense object, without letting them scatter to various sense objects.
(ii) Function (Rasa)
The function of concentration is to destroy restlessness (uddhacca). It is endowed with the property of destroying uddhacca.
(iii) Manifestation (PaccupaÔÔhÈna)
Concentration is manifested as non-wavering. It appears to the mind of meditators as unshakability.
(iv) Proximate Cause (PadatthÈna)
The proximate cause of concentration is bliss (sukha) in accordance with the statement: “Being blissful, his mind becomes concentrated.” (D.i, 73)

Different Kinds of Concentration

How many kinds of concentration are there?
1. One (Eka)
Firstly all concentration is of one kind by virtue of the characteristic of non-distraction.
2. Dyads (Duka): Different Classifications of Concentration as two Kinds each
(i) Upacära Samãdhi, Appanã Samãdhi
The concentration is of two kinds as access or neighbourhood concentration (upacÈra samÈdhi) and absorption or jhÈna concentration (appanÈ samÈdhi).
The highest concentration attainable in undertaking BuddhÈnussati, DhammÈnussati, SaÑghÈnussati, SÊlÈnussati, CÈgÈnussati, DevatÈnussati, MaraÓÈnussati, UpasamÈnussati, ŒharepaÔikñlasaÒÒÈ, and CatudhÈtuvavatthÈna is the access concentration. It is also the concentration that precedes absorption concentration.
The absorption concentration (jhÈna-samÈdhi) is the concentration which follows immediately upon the preparatory work (Gotrabhu) in accordance with the statement. “The first-jhÈna preparatory work is a proximity condition for the first jhÈna itself. ”
At the state of access concentration, the jhÈna factors — vitakka, vicÈra, pÊti, sukha, ekaggatÈ — are quite strong, but not fully developed. At the state of absorption concentration, however, the jhÈna factors are very strong and fully developed. So they can keep the mind well united and focussed on the meditation subject for a long time, allowing the meditator to experience ecstatic joy (pÊti) and great bliss (sukha) which he has never experienced before.
After attaining the absorption, the meditator can enjoy the calmness, serenity, joy and bliss of the jhÈna again and again as much as he wishes. If he practises well, he can remain in absorption for an hour, two hours, a day, two days or up to seven days. During this absorption, there is a complete, though temporary, suspension of fivefold sense-activily and of the five hindrances (nÊvaraÓas); the state of consciousness is, however, fully alert and lucid.
(ii) Lokiya SamÈdhi and Lokuttara SamÈdhi
The concentration is also of two kinds as mundane concentration (lokiya samÈdhi) and supramundane concentration (lokuttara samÈdhi).
Lokiya samÈdhi is the ekaggatÈ cetasika which associates with the moral minds (kusala cittas) of the sense sphere (kÈma-loka), the fine material sphere (r|pa-loka) and the immaterial sphere (ar|pa-loka).
The ekkaggatÈ or concentration which associates with the noble paths or ariyamagga cittas is called supramundane concentration.
(iii) SappÊtika SamÈdhi and NippÊtika SamÈdhi
The concentration (ekaggatÈ) which associates together with joy (pÊti) with the first two r|pavacara cittas in the fourfold system or with the first three r|pÈvacara cittas in the fivefold system is called the concentration with joy (sappÊtika samÈdhi).
The concentration which associates with the two remaining r|pÈvacara cittas containing no joy (pÊti) is called the concentration without joy (nippÊtika samÈdhi).
(iv) Sukhasahagatã Samãdhi, Upekkhãsahagatã Samãdhi
The concentration (ekaggatÈ) which associates with the first three r|pÈvacara cittas in the fourfold system or with the first four r|pÈvacara cittas in the fivefold system is called the concentration accompanied by bliss (SukhasahagatÈ samÈdhi).
The concentration which associates with the remaining r|pÈvacara citta is called the concentration accompanied by equanimity (upekkhÈsahagatÈ samÈdhi). The access concentration may be either sukhasahagatÈ or upekkhÈsahagatÈ.
3. Triads (Tika): Different Classifications of Concentration as three Kinds each
(i) HÊna Samãdhi, Majjhima Samãdhi, PaÓÊta Samãdhi
The concentration is of three kinds as inferior concentration (hÊna samÈdhi), medium concentration (majjhima samÈdhi) and superior concentration (paÓÊta samÈdhi).
The concentration which has only just been acquired is inferior concentration. What is not very well developed is medium concentration. What is well developed and has reached mastery is superior concentration.
(ii) Savitakka Savicãra Samãdhi, Avitakka Vicãramatta Samãdhi, Avitakka Avicãra Samãdhi
The concentration with vitakka and vicÈra (savitakka savicÈra samÈdhi) is the concentration of the first r|pavacara jhÈna together with access concentration.
The concentration without vitakka but with only vicÈra and the higher jhÈna factors (Avitakka vicÈramatta samÈdhi) is the concentration of the second r|pÈvacara jhÈna in the fivefold system. For when a man sees danger only in vitakka and not in vicÈra, he aspires to abandon only vitakka when he tries to develop the second r|pÈvacara jhÈna, and so he attains concentration without vitakka and with vicÈra only.
The concentration without vitakka and without vicÈra (Avitakka avicÈra samÈdhi) is the concentration of the three r|pÈvacara jhÈnas beginning with the second jhÈna in the fourfold system and with the third jhÈna in the fivefold system.
(iii) PÊtisahagata Samãdhi, Sukhasahagata Samãdhi, UpekkhÈsahagata Samãdhi
The concentration of the first two r|pÈvacara jhÈnas in the fourfold system and that of the first three r|pÈvacara jhÈnas in the fivefold system are the concentration with joy (pÊtisahagata samÈdhi).
The concentration of those same jhÈnas as well as of the third and the fourth respectively in the two systems is the concentration with bliss (sukhasahagata samÈdhi).
The concentration of the fourth and the fifth r|pÈvacara jhÈnas in the two systems is called the concentration with equanimity (upekkhÈsahagata samÈdhi).
The access concentration may be accompained by joy and bliss or by equanimity.
(iv) Paritta Samãdhi, Mahaggata Samãdhi and Appamãna Samãdhi
The access concentration which associates with kÈmÈvacara kusala citta is the limited concentration (paritta samÈdhi)
The concentration which associates with r|pÈvacara kusala cittas as well as with ar|pÈvacara kusala cittas is the exalted concentration (mahaggata samÈdhi).
The concentration which associated with the noble paths (ariya magga cittas) is the measureless concentration (appamÈÓa samÈdhi).
4. Tetrads (Catukka): Different Classifications of Concentration as four Kinds each
(i) The first Tetrad:
DukkhapaÔipadÈ dandhÈbiÒÒÈ samÈdhi — the concentration of painful progress and sluggish direct-knowledge;
DukkhapaÔipadÈ khippÈbhiÒÒÈ samÈdhi — the concentration of painful progress and swift direct-knowledge;
SukhapaÔipadÈ dandhÈbiÒÒÈ samÈdhi — the concentration of blissful progress and sluggish direct-knowledge;
SukhapaÔipadÈ khippabhiÒÒÈ samÈdhi — the concentration of blissful progress and swift direct-knowledge.
Herein, the development of concentration from the time the meditator starts reflecting on the meditation to the time he attains the sense-sphere access concentration (kÈmÈvacara upacÈrÈ samÈdhi) of the respective jhÈna is called ‘progress’ (paÔipadÈ).
And the understanding that arises from the time of acces jhÈna to the time absorption occurs is called ‘direct knowledge’ (abhiÒÒÈ).
The progress for some meditators is difficult and painful due to the continuous and abundant arising of opposing forces such as the hindrances (nÊvaraÓas). It is easy and blissful for others if those opposing forces are not in abundance. Also the direct-knowledge is slow and sluggish in some whereas it occurs swiftly and rapidly in others.
Herein, we shall have to take into consideration the suitability and unsuitability, the preparatory tasks of severing impediments, etc., and the skill in absorption.
When a man cultivates what is unsuitable, his progress is difficult and painful, and his direct knowledge sluggish. When he cultivates what is suitable, his progress is easy and blissful, and his direct knowledge swift.
On the other hand, if he cultivates the unsuitable in the earlier stage and the suitable in the later stage, or if he cultivates the suitable in the earlier stage and the unsuitable in the later stage, then it should be understood as mixed in this case.
Likewise if he devotes himself to development without carrying out the preparatory tasks of severing impediments, etc., his progress will be difficult. It will be easy in the opposite case. And if he is not accomplished in the skill of absorption, his direct knowledge will be sluggish. It will be swift if he is accomplished in the skill of absorption.
Furthermore, the progress and the direct knowledge will also depend on the influence of craving and ignorance as well as on the earlier experience in tranquility and insight meditation. For if a man is overwhelmed by craving, his progress will be difficult. If not, the progress will be easy. And if he is overwhelmed by ignorance, his direct knowledge will be sluggish. If not, it will be swift. And if he has not undertaken tranquility meditation very strenuously, his progress will be difficult. If he has, it will be easy. And if he has not undertaken vipassanÈ very strenuously, his direct knowledge will be sluggish. If he has, it will be swift.
Also the progress and the direct knowledge will depend on defilements such as sense pleasure (kÈmacchanda) and on faculties (indriyas) such as faith and confidence (saddhÈ). For if a man’s defilements are strong and his faculties dull, then his progress will be difficult and his direct knowledge sluggish; but if his faculties are keen, his direct knowledge will be swift. And if his defilements are weak and his faculties dull, then his progress will be easy and his direct knowledge sluggish; but if his faculties are keen, his direct knowledge will be swift.
Thus with regard to the progress (paÔipadÈ) and the direct knowledge (abhiÒÒÈ), when a person can develop concentration with pain and difficulty and his direct knowledge is sluggish, his concentration is called the concentration of painful progress and sluggish direct knowledge. Similarly in the cases of the remaining three types of concentration.
(ii) The Second Tetrad:
Paritta parittÈrammaÓa samÈdhi — limited concentration with a limited sense object;
Paritta appamÈnÈrammaÓa samÈdhi — limited concentration with an infinite sense object;
AppamÈÓa parittÈrammaÓa samÈdhi — infinite concentration with a limited sense object;
AppamÈÓa appamÈnÈrammaÓa samÈdhi — infinite concentration with an infinite sense object.
Herein, the concentration which is not well developed, not skilfully practised, and incapable of a condition for a higher jhÈna is limited. If it occurs with an unextended object, it is with a limited object. If it occurs with an extended object, it is with an infinite object.
Moreover, the concentration which is well developed, skilfully practised, and capable of a condition for a higher jhÈna is infinite. If it occurs with an unextended object, it is with a limited object. If it occurs with an extended object, it is with an infinite object.
(iii) The Third Tetrad:
It refers to the four r|pÈvacara jhÈnas according to the fourfold system.
First r|pÈvacara jhÈna concentration associated with vitakka, vicÈra, pÊti, sukha, ekaggatÈ as jhÈna factors. It arises by the suppression of the hindrances.
Second r|pÈvacara jhÈna concentration associated with pÊti, sukha, ekaggatÈ as jhÈna factors. It arises by the supperssion of vitakka and vicÈra.
Third r|pÈvacara jhÈna concentration associated with sukha and ekaggatÈ as jhÈna factors. It arises by the suppression of pÊti.
Fourth r|pÈvacara jhÈna concentration associated with upekkhÈ and ekaggatÈ as jhÈna factors. It arises by the suppression of sukha.
(iv) The Fourth Tetrad:
HÈnabhÈgiya samÈdhi — retrogressive concentration due to the frequent arising of the opposing states.
®hitibhÈgiya samÈdhi — stagnant concentration due to the persistence of mindfulness which is in conformity with concentration;
VisesabhÈgiya samÈdhi — concentration which leans towards distinction due to the attainment of higher distinction;
NibbedhabhÈgiya samÈdhi — the concentration leading to penetration due to the promptings of perception (saÒÒÈ) and attention (manasikÈra) associated with disgust.
(v) The Fifth Tetrad:
KÈmÈvacara samÈdhi — sense-sphere concentration comprising all access concentration;
R|pÈvacara samÈdhi — fine-material-shpere concentration comprising all r|pÈvacara jhÈna concentraion;
Ar|pÈvacara samÈdhi — immaterial-shpere concentration comprising all ar|pÈvacara jhÈna concentration;
ApariyÈpanna samÈdhi — unincluded or Path concentration which associates with the Path consciousness.
(vi) The Sixth Tetard:
Chanda samÈdhi — wish concentration, that is, the concentration attained by making chanda predominant;
VÊriya samÈdhi — energy concentration that is, the concentration attained by making vÊriya predominant;
Citta samÈdhi — consciousness concentration, that is, the concentration attained by making citta predominant;
VÊmaÑsa samÈdhi — investigation concentration, that is, the conentration attained by making investigation (vÊmaÑsa) predominant.

5. Pentad (Pañcaka): Classification of Concentration as five Kinds
It refers to the five r|pÈvacara jhÈnas according to the fivefold system.
First r|pÈvacara jhÈna concentration associated with vitakka, vicÈra, pÊti, sukha and ekaggatÈ as jhÈna factors; it arises by the suppression of the hindrances;
Second r|pÈvacara jhÈna concentration associated with vicÈra, pÊti, sukha and ekaggatÈ as jhÈna factors; it arises by the suppression of vitakka.
Third r|pÈvacara jhÈna concentration associated with pÊti, sukha and ekaggatÈ as jhÈna factors; it arises by the suppression of vicÈra.
Fourth r|pÈvacara jhÈna concentration associated with sukha and ekaggatÈ as jhÈna factors; it arises by the suppression of pÊti.
Fifth r|pÈvacara jhÈna concentration associated with upekkhÈ and ekaggatÈ as jhÈna factors; it arises by the suppression of sukha.
Defiling and Cleansing of Concentration
In Vibha~ga PÈÄi the answer is given thus: defilement is the state of diminution or diminishing; and cleansing is the state of distinction or progressing.
Here the state of diminution should be understood in this way: “If a man, who has attained the first r|pÈvacara jhÈna, is overwhelmed with perception and reflection accompanied by sense desire, then his wisdom is in the state of diminution.”
And the state of distinction should be understood in this way: “If a man, who has attained the first r|pÈvacara jhÈna, is overwhelmed with preception and reflection accompanied by the jhÈna without initial application (vitakka), then his wisdom is in the state of distinction.” (Vbh. 330, 343)

Why should we develop Concentration?

Normally the mind is not tranquil and peaceful. It is constantly agitated and inflicted by hindrances (nÊvaraÓas) and other defilements (kilesas) such as lust, craving, anger, hatred, selfishness, conceit, envy, jealousy and remorse.
So the mind is always distracted, restless, wavering and wandering from one sense object to another. It is weak, powerless and inflicted with pain. It cannot discern the truth and the true nature of things. It cannot clearly discern one’s own benefit, nor that of others, nor that of both.
On the other hand, a trained and cultured mind becomes tranquil, peaceful, blissful and powerful. It can discern the truth and the true nature of things. It can clearly discern one’s own benefit, that of others and that of both. So we can ward off danger and woeful suffering and build up great benefits by training and culturing the mind.

In Dhammapada the Buddha gave his advice thus:
* The mind is very swift and very hard to check, it falls on what it wants.
The training of the mind is good,
for a mind so tamed brings happiness.

* The mind is very subtle and very hard
to see; it falls on wherever it likes.
Let the wise man guard his mind,
for a guarded mind brings happiness.

* One who has an unsteady mind,
Who does not know True Dhamma,
Who is of wavering confidence,
does not perfect his wisdom.
(Dhammapada Verses 35, 36, 38)
The Buddha urged his disciples to develop concentration in two SamÈdhi Suttas as follows.
“O monks, try to develop concentration. The monk who attains concentration will distinctly and correctly understand the ultimate realities as they really are.”
“What are the realities that he will understand distinctly and correctly? He will understand distinctly and correctly that ‘this is the noble Truth of Suffering’, that ‘this is the noble Truth of the Cause of Suffering’, that ‘this is the noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering’, that ‘this is the noble Truth of the Path leading to the Cessation of Suffering.”
(Samyutta, 3, 363)
“O monks, try to develop concentration. The monk who attains concentration will distinctly and correctly understand the ultimate realities as they really are.
“What are the realities that he will understand distinctly and correctly? He will understand distinctly and correctly —

1. The nature of the cause for the arising of corporeality as well as the nature of the arising of corporeality and the nature of the cause for the cessation of corporeality as well as the nature of the cessation of corporeality.
2. The nature of the cause for the arising of sensation as well as the nature of the arising of sensation and the nature of the cause for the cessation of sensation as well as the nature of the cessation of sensation.
3. The nature of the cause for the arising of perception as well as the nature of the arising of perception and the nature of the cause for the cessation of perception as well as the nature of the cessation of perception.
4. The nature of the cause for the arising of mental formations as well as the nature of the arising of mental formations and the nature of the cause for the cessation of mental formations.
5. The nature of the cause for the arising of consciousness as well as the nature of the arising of consciousness and the nature of the cause for the cessation of consciousness as well as the nature of the cessation of consciousness.” (Samyutta 2, 12)
Just as sun rays, when concentrated by a convex lens, become so hot that it can burn paper and wood, so in the same way the mind becomes very powerful when concentrated. A well-concentrated mind radiates bright penetrative light which enables the meditator to look into his body and mind and observe all the ultimate realities that make up body and mind. So he can proceed with insight meditation to develop insight and the Path wisdom.
Thus whoever wants to be liberated from suffering and enjoy the eternal bliss of NibbÈna for ever must train his mind and develop concentration.

Preparation for Developing Concentration

Although there are two types of concentration, namely lokiya samÈdhi and lokuttara samÈdhi, we need to develop only the mundane concentration for the method of developing supramundane concentration is included in the method of developing wisdom.
We should follow the following procedure for developing concentration.
1. First of all we must establish ourselves in pure morality by observing the Fourfold Morality called Catuparisuddhi SÊla very diligently. Moral purity, that is sÊlavisuddhi, is the foundation of meditation.
2. We must sever the ten major impediments called Palibodha that we might have for they will hinder and obstruct our meditation if they are not cut off.
3. We must then approach a good, competent teacher who is also a good friend (kalyÈÓa mitta) to learn a meditation subject which is suitable to our temperament as well as the four Guardian Meditations called CaturÈrakkha KammaÔÔhÈnas.
4. After learning the meditation subjects, we should search for a suitable place for meditation, avoiding a monastery unfavourable to the development of concentration and going to live in one that is favourable.
5. Then we must sever all the minor impediments that we may still have. We should keep our mind totally free from worry, attachment and any obligation.
6. We should pay homage to the Buddha, the Dhamma and the SaÑgha, and then dedicate ourselves to the Blessed One and to the teacher just before we undertake meditation.
7. We should first undertake for a few minutes ‘the Sabbatthaka KammaÔÔhÈnas,’ that is, the four Guardian Meditations, to protect ourselves from all dangers.
8. Then we should strenuously undertake the special meditation subject called ‘parihÈriya kammaÔÔhÈna,’ that is the meditation subject which is given to us to suit our temperament. We should always carry it along with us, persistently reflecting on it according to the detailed directions we learn from the teacher.

The Purpose and Objective of Developing Concentration

The purpose of developing concentration is:
1. To train, culture and develop the mind;
2. To suppress and drive away the hindrances and other defilements from the mind, thus purifying the mind.
3. To develop and strengthen the jhÈna factors, thus building up concentration;
4. To accomplish the training of concentration (samÈdhi sikkhÈ) as part of the Noble Threefold Training;
5. To perform great meritorious deeds and accumulate great moral kammas;
6. To enjoy the physical well-being and the mental well being;
7. To make the mind totally calm, peaceful and very powerful to enable the meditator to see penetratively into the body and mind.
The objective of developing concentration is to attain the right concentration (sammÈsamÈdhi) and the purity of the mind (citta visuddhi).
The right concentration is equivalent to the concentration associated with the fourfold or the fivefold r|pÈvacara jhÈna according to MahÈsatipaÔÔhÈna Sutta.
According to Visuddhi Magga, however, the right concentration can be taken as the access concentration (upacÈra samÈdhi) or the concentration associated with any of the four/five r|pÈvacara jhÈnas or any of the four ar|pÈvacara jhÈnas. The higher the concentration, the more powerful the mind, and so the better.
At the right concentration the mind is totally free from the hindrances and other defilements. So the mind is perfectly pure giving rise to the state of purity of the mind called ‘citta visuddhi.’ The purity of the mind with the right concentration is the foundation for undertaking insight meditation.
The best concentration to be used as the foundation of vipassanÈ would be the fourth r|pÈvacara jhÈna concentration for the Buddha himself used it in his insight meditation leading to his full enlightenment. So we should strive to attian the fourth r|pÈvacara jhÈna of the fourfold system in undertaking the Training of Concentration.

References:

1. ‘Visuddhimagga’ by BhaddantÈcariya Buddhaghosa, translated into Myanmar by Ven. NandamÈlÈ, Vol.1, pp.160-237.
2. ‘Visuddhimagga’ by BhaddantÈcariya Buddhaghosa, translated into Myanmar by Ven. Sobhana, Vol.1, pp.268-459.
3. ‘The Path of Purity’ (Visuddhimagga by BhaddantÈcariya Buddhaghosa, translated into English by Pe Maung Tin, PTS 1971, pp. 97-137.)
4. ‘The Path of Purification’ (Visuddhimagga by BhaddantÈcariya Buddhaghosa translated into English by Bhikkhu ©ÈÓamoli, published by Singapore Buddhist Meditation Centre, pp. 84-126.)
5. Samyutta NikÈya, KhandhÈvagga, SamÈdhi Sutta.
6. Anguttara NikÈya, PaÒcaka NipÈta, SamÈdhi Sutta.

Review Questions

1. What is concentration? In what sense is it called concentration?
2. What are the characteristic, the function, the manifestation and the proximate cause of concentration?
3. Describe the different classifications of concentration as two kinds each.
4. Explain briefly: (i) upacÈra samÈdhi and appanÈ samÈdhi, (ii) lokiya samÈdhi and lokuttara samÈdhi, (iii) sappÊtika samÈdhi and nippÊtika samÈdhi.
5. Describe the different classifications of concentration as three kinds each.
6. Differentiate the following: (i) hÊna samÈdhi, majjhima samÈdhi, and panÊta samÈdhi, (ii) paritta samÈdhi, mahaggata samÈdhi and appamÈÓa samÈdhi.
7. In what ways do the following concentration differ from one another? (i) dukkhapaÔipadÈ dandhÈbhiÒÒÈ samÈdhi (ii) dukkhapaÔipadÈ khippabhiÒÒÈ samÈdhi (iii) sukhapaÔipadÈ dandhÈbhiÒÒÈ samÈdhi, and (iv) sukhapaÔiapdÈ khippabhiÒÒÈ samÈdhi.
8. Explain briefly: (i) hÈnabhÈgiya samÈdhi (ii) ÔhitibhÈgiya samÈdhi, (iii) visesabhÈgiya samÈdhi (iv) nibbedhabhÈgiya samÈdhi.
9. How do the following concentrations differ from one another? (i) chanda samÈdhi (ii) vÊriya samÈdhi (iii) cittasamÈdhi, and (iv) vÊmaÑsa samÈdhi.
10. How is concentration classified as five kinds?
11. How is concentration defiled and how is it cleansed?
12. Why should we develop concentration?
13. What are the purpose and the objective of developing concentration?
14. Desctibe the necessary preparation for developing concentration briefly.