It is called ‘sÊla’ in the sense of composing (sÊlana). What is this composing? In one sense it is keeping well (samÈdhÈna), that is, keeping one’s bodily and verbal actions well. A virtuous person keeps his manners well composed and his bodily and verbal actions are not in disarray but well controlled. In another sense ‘sÊlana’ means upholding (upadhÈraÓa). It upholds wholesome states such as samÈdhi and paÒÒÈ or it serves as the foundation for wholesome states to grow up.
Some other teachers regard sÊla to be derived from ‘sira’, meaning the ‘head’, or from ‘sÊtala’, meaning ‘coolness’.

(i) Characteristic (LakkhaÓa)
Just as visibility is the characteristic of visible objects even when analysed into various kinds such as blue, red, yellow, etc., so also composing (sÊlana) in the sense of keeping bodily and verbal actions well and also in the sense of upholding wholesome states such as samÈdhi and paÒÒÈ is the characteristic of sÊla even when analysed into various kinds such as cetanÈ, cetasika, saÑvara and avÊtikkama.
(ii) Function (Rasa)
Function has two aspects: function as action (kicca-rasa) and function as achievement (sampattirasa). SÊla has the function of stopping misconduct (dussÊla) as its action and has the property of blamelessness as its achievement.
A virtuous person will not perform evil actions so that his character is pure, blameless and admired by the wise.
(iii) Manifestation (PaccupaÔÔhÈna)
SÊla has, as its manifestation, purity, that is, bodily purity, verbal purity and mental purity. It is manifested or comes to be apprehended as a pure state.
(iv) Proximate Cause (PadaÔÔhÈna)
SÊla has, as its proximate cause, sense of shame or moral shame (hirÊ) and moral dread (ottappa).
A person can keep pure morality only if he has moral shame and moral dread.

What are the benefits of sÊla ?
SÊla bears many benefits beginning with the clarity of the mind and non - remorse. SÊla has the clarity, serenity and peace of mind as its benefits; it has the potency of clarifying and refreshing the mind.
(i) Five Benefits of SÊla (DÊgha ii, 86, MahÈParinibbÈna Sutta)
1 A virtuous person acquires much wealth owing to non-negligence and diligence.
2 His good fame spreads far and wide.
3 He could enter an assembly of princes or brahmans or householders or ascetics without fear or hesitation.
4 He dies unconfused or undeluded, that is, he dies with a clear mind taking a wholesome object.
5 After death, he will reappear in a happy destiny, in a heavenly world.
(ii) Ten Benefits of Síla (M|lapannÈsa, Akankheyya Sutta)
One should accomplish the training of morality if one desires:
1 to enjoy the respect and adoration of co-residents,
2 to acquire the four requisites or wealth in abundance,
3 to let donors enjoy great benefits,
4 to let relative ghosts enjoy great benefits,
5 to have the ability to endure and resist idleness and sense pleasures,
6 to overcome dread and dreadful objects,
7 to attain r|pÈvacara jhÈnas and ar|pÈvacara jhÈnas,
8 to escape rebirth in woeful abodes,
9 to become a noble person (ariyÈ), and
10 to attain supernormal powers.
Indeed a viruous person with pure morality will get whatever he desires, because his mind is pure and noble.

How many kinds of SÊla are there ?
1. One (Eka)
Firstly all sÊla is of one kind by reason of its own characteristic of composing (sÊlana) in the sense of keeping bodily and verbal actions well and also in the sense of upholding wholesome states.
2. Dyads (Duka): Different Classifications of SÊla
as two Kinds each
(i) CÈritta sÊla and vÈritta sÊla
The fulfilling of the precepts such as a teacher’s duties, a pupil’s duties, etc., enacted by the Buddha thus: “This should be practised” is called CÈritta SÊla.
Not doing the evil actions which are prohibited by the Buddha thus: “This should not be done” is called VÈritta sÊla.
(ii) AbhisamÈcÈrika sÊla, Ãdibrahmacariyaka síla
AbhisamÈcÈrika means the noble, exalted practice. All those training precepts prescribed by the Buddha for the sake of the noble Practice or the noble Path (Magga) is called AbhisamÈcÈrika sÊla. In other words it is the name of all sÊlas except ŒjÊvaÔÔhamaka sÊla.
ŒdÊbrahmacariyaka sÊla is the initial stage of the life of purity consisting in the noble Path. It is the name of ŒjÊvaÔÔhamaka sÊla which is the initial stage of the Path because it has to be purified previous to the Path.
(iii) Virati SÊla and Avirati SÊla
Mere abstaining from killing sentient beings and so on is called Virati SÊla.
Other kinds of SÊla consisting of cetanÈ, saÑvara, and avÊtikkama are called Avirati SÊla.
(iv) Nissita SÊla and Anissita SÊla
Dependence (nissaya) is of two kinds: dependence through craving and dependence through false view.
Herein, the sÊla observed by one who wishes for a fortunate kind of becoming thus: “Through this sÊla I shall become a great deity or some minor deity (M.i, 102) is called TaÓhÈnissita sÊla.
The sÊla observed through a false view about purification as “Purification is possible just by observing sÊla” is called DiÔÔhinissita sÊla.
The suprÈmundane sÊla and the mundane sÊla that is the pre-requisite for the supramundane sÊla do not depend on craving and false view. So they are called Anissita sÊla.
(v) KÈlapariyanta SÊla and ÃpÈÓakoÔika SÊla
The sÊla which is practised within a certain time limit such as a day or half a day is called KÈlapariyanta sÊla.
The sÊla which is undertaken as long as life lasts is called ŒpÈÓakoÔika sÊla.
(vi) Sapariyanta SÊla and Apariyanta SÊla
The sÊla that has gain, fame, relatives, limbs, or life as its limit is called Sapariyanta sÊla.
The sÊla that does not have gain, fame, relatives, limbs or life as its limit is called Apaniyanta sÊla.
Here someone with gain as cause, with gain as condition, with gain as reason, transgresses a training precept. That sÊla has gain as its limit (PaÔisambhidÈmagga, i, 43). The rest should be elaborated in the same way.
(vii) Lokiya SÊla and Lokuttara SÊla
All sÊla which is accompanied by intoxicants (Èsavas) or the object of intoxicants is called Lokiya SÊla.
That sÊla which is not accompained by introxicants is called Lokuttara SÊla.
3. Triads (Tika): Different Classifications of SÊla
as three Kinds each
(i) HÊna SÊla, Majjhima SÊla and PaÓÊta SÊla
The sÊla which arises through inferior will (chanda), consciousness (citta), energy (vÊriya) and investigating wisdom (vÊmaÑsa) is HÊna SÊla, that which arises through moderate will, consciousness, energy and wisdom is Majjhima sÊla; that which arises through superior will, consciousness, energy and wisdom is PaÓÊta sÊla.
Alternatively, the sÊla undertaken out of desire for praise and fame is hÊna (inferior), that undertaken out of desire for the fruits of merit is majjhima (medium); that undertaken out of desire to become a noble person as noble persons maintain pure morality is panÊta (superior).
(ii) AttÈdhipateyya SÊla, Lokãdhipateyya SÊla,
DhammÈdhipateyya SÊla,
The sÊla which is practised out of self-respect, having regard for self, and from a desire to put away what is improper conduct for self, is Attadhipateyya sila, i.e, morality giving precedence to self..
The sÊla which is practised out of respect for the world, having regard for the world, and from a desire to avoid accusation by the world, is LokÈdhipateyya sÊla, i.e., morality giving precedence to the world.
The sÊla which is practised out of respect for the Dhamma and out of a desire to honour the majesty of the Dhamma is DhammÈdhipateyya sÊla, i.e., morality giving precedence to the Dhamma.
(iii) ParÈmaÔÔha SÊla, AparÈmaÔÔha SÊla, PaÔipassaddhi SÊla
The sÊla which is adhered to through craving and false view is ParÈmaÔÔha sÊla.
The sÊla which is practised by a good worldling as a pre-requisite to attain the Path wisdom and that associated with the Path consciousness of sekkha persons (stream-enterers, once-returness, and non-returners) is called AparÈmaÔÔha sÊla.
The sÊla which associates with the Fruition consciousness of sekkha and asekkha persons is PaÔipassaddhi sÊla.
(iv) Visuddha SÊla, Avisuddha SÊla, Vematika SÊla
The sÊla which is fulfilled without committing an offence or by atoning for an offence committed is Visuddha sÊla, i.e., pure morality.
The sÊla of one who has not atoned for an offence committed is Avisuddha sila, i.e., impure morality.
The sÊla of one who has doubts regarding the object, the offence, or the transgression is Vematika sÊla, i.e., doubtful morality.
Herein, the meditator should purify his impure sÊla. When there is doubt, it should be dispelled by not transgressing against the object.
(v) Sekkha SÊla, Asekkha SÊla, NevasekkhÈnÈsekkha SÊla
Sekkha sÊla is that which associates with the four Paths and with the three lower Fruitions.
Asekkha sÊla is that which associates with the Fruition of Arahantship.
NevasekkhÈnÈsekkha sÊla refers to all the remaining mundane sÊlas.
4. Tetrads (Catukka): Different Classifications of SÊla as Four Kinds each
(i) The First Tetrad:
HÈnabhÈgiya SÊla – retrogressive morality
One with such sÊla associates with unvirtuous persons, avoids virtuous persons, sees no fault in transgression, harbours wrong thoughts, and does not control the six faculties.
®hitibhÈgiya SÊla – stagnant morality
One with such sÊla is satisfied with the morality which has been achieved; he is contented with virtue and will not strive for a higher state to attain jhana, magga and phala.
VisesabhÈgiya SÊla – morality which leans towards distinction
One with such sÊla is not satisfied with mere pure morality but strives for a higher state to attain jhÈna, magga, and phala.
Nibbedhabhãgiya SÊla – morality leading to the Path Wisdom
One with such sÊla is not contented with mere purity of sÊla but strives for a higher state by undertaking intensive insight meditation in order to penetrate the greatness of defilements and realize NibbÈna.
(ii) The Second Tetrad :
Bhikkhu SÊla – the morality prescribed for the monks to observe.
BhikkhunÊ SÊla – the morality prescribed for the bhikkhunÊs to observe.
Anupasampanna SÊla – the ten moral precepts prescribed for male and female novices to observe.
Gahattha SÊla – five training precepts, eight, nine or ten uposatha precepts prescribed for the laity.
(iii) The Third Tetrad :
Pakati SÊla – the natural morality of uttarakuru human beings who do not transgress pañca síla.
Ãcãra SÊla – customary morality which refers to traditional rules of conduct in a clan, locality or sect.
Dhammatã SÊla – the morality pertaining to the law of nature : when the Bodhisatta has descended into his mother’s womb, she has no thought connected with lust for men.
Pubbahetuka SÊla – the morality due to previous causes. It is the morality of such pure beings as Mahãkassa- pa and others, and of the Bodhisatta in many births.
(iv) The Fourth Tetrad :
Pãtimokkhasamvara SÊla – the morality of Pãtimokk- ha restraint
PÈtimokkha consists of 227 rules for bhikkhus and the rules for bhikkhunÊs as training precepts. It is called PÈtimokkha because it frees him who protects it, guards it, and it sets him free from the pains of the states of loss. Restraint (saÑvara) is a term for controlling bodily and verbal actions so that no bodily or verbal transgression arises. It prevents the arising of unwholesome things such as defilements at kÈya-dvÈra and vacÊ-dvara.
The Buddha described this morality thus: “Here a bhikkhu dwells restrained with the PÈtimokkha restraint, possessed of the proper conduct and lawful resort, and seeing fault in the slightest fault, he trains himself by undertaking the precepts of training.” (Vbh. 244)
IndriyasaÑvara SÊla – the morality concerning the restraint of the sense faculties to prevent unwholesome things from arising
The Buddha described this morality thus : “On seeing a visible object with the eye, he apprehends neither the signs nor the particulars through which, if he left the eye - faculty unguarded, evil and unprofitable states of covetousness and grief might invade him, he enters upon the way of its restraint, he guards the eye - faculty, undertakes the restraint of the eye - faculty. On hearing a sound with the ear......... On smelling an odour with the nose ............ On tasting a flavour with the tongue ............. On touching a tangible object with the body ........... On cognizing a mental object with the mind, he apprehends neither the signs nor the particulars through which, if he left the mind faculty unguarded, evil and unprofitable states of covetousness and grief might invade him, he enters upon the way of its restraint, he guards the mind faculty, undertakes the restraint of the mind faculty.” (Majjhima NikÈya, i, 180)
ÃjÊvapãrisuddhi SÊla – the morality concerning the purity of livelihood
It is the abstinence from such wrong livelihood as entails transgression of the six training precepts enacted for the sake of livelihood and entails the evil states beginning with “scheming, talking, hinting, belittling, pursuing gain with gain.” (M, iii, 75)
A bhikkhu should not obtain his livelihood by a grift of bamboos, of leaves, of flowers, of fruits, of bath-powder, of tooth-pticks, by fawning, by bean-curry talk, by nurturing children, by carrying messages on foot, or by any other means of wrong livelihood loathed by the Buddha.
Paccayasannissita SÊla– tha morality concerning the use of the four requisites wisely
“ Reflecting wisely, he uses the robe only for protection from contract with gadflies, flies, wind, cold, burning and creeping things, and only for the purpose of concealing private parts.”
“ Reflecting wisely , he uses alms food neither for amusement nor for intoxication nor for smartening nor for the embellishment, but only for the endurance and continuance of this body, for the ending of discomfort, and for assisting the life of purity.”
“ Reflecting wisely, he uses the resting place only for the purpose of protection from cold, from heat, from contact with gadflies, flies, wind, burning and creeping things, and only for the purpose of warding off the perils of climate and enjoying retreat.”
“ Reflecting wisely , he uses the requisite of medicine as cure for the sick only for protection from arisen hurtful feelings and for complete immunity from affliction.” (Majjhima NikÈya, i, 10)
5 Pentads (Pañcaka) : Different Classifications of SÊla as Five Kinds each
(i) The First Pentad :
Pariyantaparisuddhi SÊla – the limited precepts of purity
They are the limited precepts prescribed for the novices who are not yet ordained to be fully admitted to the Order.
Apariyantapãrisuddhi SÊla - the unlimited precepts of purity
They are the unlimited precepts prescribed for bhikkhus who are ordained and fully admitted to the Order.
ParipuÓÓapãrisuddhi SÊla - the morality of complete purity
It is the morality of a good worldling who is constantly undertaking insight meditation in order to accomplish the noble Threefold Training, regardless of his physical body and life, having given up attachment to life.
AparãmaÔÔhaparisuddhi SÊla – the morality of purity not adhered to by false views and greed
It is the morality of the seven sekkha persons.
PaÔipassaddhipãrisuddhi SÊla – the morality of tranquillized purity due to tranquillization of all defilements
It is the morality of arahants, silent Buddhas and supreme Buddhas.
(ii) The Second Pentad :
Pahãna SÊla – the citta and cetasikas abandoning killing, stealing, etc.
Veramani SÊla – the virati cetasikas abstaining from killing, stealing, etc.
Cetanã SÊla – the volition abstaining from killing, stealing, etc.
SaÑvara SÊla – the restraint from killing, stealing, etc.
AvÊtikkama SÊla – the non-transgression of killing, stealing, etc.
For this is said in the PÈÔisambhidÈ :
(1) In the case of killing living beings, (a) abandoning is virtue, (b) abstinence is virtue, (c) volition is virtue, (d) restraint is virtue, (e) non-transgression is virtue.
(2) In the case of taking what is not given,...............
(3) In the case of sexual misconduct, ....................
(4) In the case of false speech, ....................
(5) In the case of slandering, ....................
(6) In the case of harsh speech, ....................
(7) In the case of vain talk, ....................
(8) In the case of covetousness, ....................
(9) In the case of ill-will, ....................
(10) In the case of wrong view, ....................
(11) In the case of sense pleasure through renunciation,
(a) abandoning sense pleasure is virtue,....................
(12) In the case of ill-will through non-evil (abyÈpÈda),
(a) abandoning ill-will is virtue, ....................
(13) In the case of sloth and torpor (thina, middha) through the perception of light, (a) abandoning sloth and torpor is virtue, ....................
(14) In the case of restlessness (uddhacca) through non distraction (avikkhepa), (a) abandoning uddhacca ............
(15) In the case of doubt (vÊcikicchÈ) through defining dhammas (ultimate realities), (a) abandoning doubt..........
(16) In the case of ignorance (moha) through knowledge (avijjÈ), (a) abandoning moha is virtue, ............
(17) In the case of bordom (arati) through glanddening (pamojja), (a) abandoning bordom is sÊla, ..................
(18) In the case of hindrances (nÊvaraÓas) through the first jhÈna, (a) abandoning the hindrances is sÊla, (b) abstinence from hindrances is sÊla, ....................
(19) In the case of applied and sustained thought through the second jhÈna, (a) abandoning vitakka and vicÈra is sÊla, .................... and so on.

PÈrisuddhi SÊla consists of the four major sÊlas called PÈtimokkhasaÑvara sÊla, IndriyasaÑvara sÊla, ŒjÊvapÈrisuddhi sÊla and Paccayasannissita sÊla. Of this fourfold sÊla, PÈtimokkhasaÑvara sÊla should be undertaken by faith (saddhÈ), for it is accomplished by faith. The announcing of training precepts is outside the province of the disciples and the Buddha announced them seeing them to be essential for a pure moral life. So bhikkhus should undertake through faith the training precepts without exception and completely perfect them without regard for life.
For thus has it been said that as a pheasant guards her eggs, or as a yak her tail, or as a mother her only beloved son, or as a one-eyed man his remaining eye, so in the same way one should protect one’s morality very prudently and scrupulously (careful to do nothing morally wrong) at all times.
And this also has been said, “So, O king, my disciples do not transgress even for the sake of life the training precepts which I have laid down for them”. (Anguttara, iv, 201) And in this sense are to be understood the stories told by Elders bound by thieves in a forest.
It is said that in the Himalayan forest thieves bound an Elder with black creepers and made him lie down. And the Elder, without making the effort to cut the creepers, lay there for seven days undertaking insight meditation. He attained AnÈgÈmi Magga and Phala, and died as a Non-returner to be reborn in the BrahmÈ world.
Again, on TambapaÓÓi Isle in Sri Lanka thieves bound an Elder with string creepers and made him lie down. When a forest fire came, the Elder did not cut the creepers but established insight and attained NibbÈna simultaneously with his death.
Thus, in order to keep the PÈtimokkha pure, upright persons may yield their life instead of breaking the moral rules enacted by World’s Saviour.

ŒjÊvapÈrisuddhi SÊla, the purification of livelihood, should be undertaken by means of energy (vÊriya) for this sÊla is accomplished by energy, because the abandoning of wrong livelihood is effected in one who has rightly applied energy. With energy one abandons unproper wrong search and pursue the right kind of search by going on alms round, etc., avoiding what is of impure origin as through it were a poisonous snake, and acquiring requisites of pure origin.
He must not transgress the six training precepts prescribed by the Buddha with respect to livelihood. So he must strictly observe the following precepts.
(i) With livelihood as cause and reason, one with evil wishes, a prey to evil wishes, lays claim to a higher property of noble persons, by saying that he attains jhÈna, magga and phala though he does not possess them.
(ii) With livelihood as cause and reason, he acts as go- between or matchmaker.
(iii) With livelihood as cause and reason, he faslely states that ‘a bhikkhu who lives in your monastery is an Arahant.’
(iv) With livelihood as cause and reason, he eats superior food that he has ordered for his own use though he is not sick.
(v) With livelihood as cause and reason, a bhikkhuni who is not sick eats superior food that she has ordered for her own use.
(vi) With livelihood as cause and reason, one who is not sick eats curry or cooked rice that he has ordered for his own use.
Moreover, a bhikkhu must avoid the improper search by scheming, talking, hinting, belittling, pursuing gain with gain with evil wishes to receive greater gain, honour and renown.
Scheming is rejecting requisites with the evil intention of getting more and better requisites. Here householders invite bhikkhus to accept robes, alms food, resting place and medicine. One with evil wishes says, “What has an ascetic to do with expensive robes, expensive alms food, expensive resting place and expensive medicine? It is proper for an ascetic to gather rags from a charnel ground and make them into a patch - work cloak to wear. It is proper for an ascetic to go on alms round daily and to live under a tree.”
Accordingly he wears a coarse robe, eats coarse alms food, uses a coarse resting place and coarse medicine. Householders think “ This ascetic has few wishes, is content, is secluded and strenuous.” So they offer him expensive robes, good alms food, good resting places and expensive medicine.
Talking is talking round, persuading, suggesting, flattery and bean-soupery with evil wishse to get requisites. Flattery is speaking humbly, always maintaining an attitude of inferiority. Bean-soupery is resemblance to bean soup; for just as when beans are cooked, only a few do not get cooked and the rest get cooked, so too talking with a little truth and much false is called bean-soupery.
Hinting is giving a sign or making an indirect talk or roundabout talk with the evil intention of getting requisites. Once a bhikkhu who was sopported by a family went into the house wanting to eat and sat down. The hostess was unwilling to give. Saying that there was no rice, she went to a neighbour’s house as through to get rice. The bhikkhu went into the store-room. Looking round, he saw sugarcane in a corner, sugar in a bowl, a string of salt fish in a basket, rice in a jar and ghee in a pot. He came out and sat down. When the housewife came back, she said, “I did not get any rice.”
The bhikkhu said, “Lay follower, I saw a sign just now that alms will not be easy to get today ... I saw a snake that was like a sugarcane in a corner, and looking for something to hit it with, I saw a stone like a lump of sugar in a bowl. When the snake was hit by the stone, it spread out a hood like a string of salt fish in a basket, and its teeth were like rice grains in a jar. Then the saliva mixed with poison that came out to its mouth in its fury was like ghee put in a pot.”
The housewife had to offer him the sugarcane, cooked the rice and gave it all to him with the ghee, the sugar and the fish.
Belittling means abusing, reproaching, ridiculing, and backbiting with the evil intention of receiving gain, honour and renown.
Pursuing gain with gain is seeking for, seeking out, going in search of material goods by means of material goods, such as carrying to there goods that have been received from here, or carrying here goods that have been got from there with the evil intention of receiving gain, honour and renown.
In connection with observing ŒjÊvapÈrisuddhi sÊla, the story of Venerable Sariputta should be told. He was once cultivating seclusion in a certain forest with the Elder MahÈ MoggallÈna. One day an afliction of colic or severe flatulence arose in him, causing him great pain. In the evening MahÈ MoggallÈna went to attend upon him. Seeing him lying down, he asked what the reason was. On knowing the reason he asked, “What used to make you better formerly, friend?”
SÈriputta said, “When I was a layman, my mother used to give me rice gruel prepared from pure milk, ghee, honey and sugar. That used to make me better.”
“So be it, friend. If either you or I have merit, perhaps tomorrow we shall get some,” said the other.
Now a deity who dwelt on a tree at the end of the walk overheard their conversation. He went to the family who was supporting the Elder SÈriputta, and entered the body of the eldest son, causing him discomfort. Relatives gathered around the son and asked for the reason.
“It you prepare rice gruel from pure milk, ghee, honey and sugar tomorrow for the Elder, I will set the boy free,” said the deity.
“Well, even without being told by you, we regularly supply the Elder’s needs,” said the boy’s parents. On the following day they prepared rice gruel of the kind needed.
Reverend MoggallÈna came in the morning and said, “ stay here, friend, till I came back from the alms round.” Then he went into the village. Those people met him, took his bowl and filled it with the rice gruel specially prepared. When the Elder made as though to go, they said, “Please eat here, we shall give you more.”
When he had eaten, they gave him another bowful. He left taking the alms food to Venerable SÈriputta. He handed the bowl to the latter, saying “Here, friend, eat.”
Venerable SÈriputta looked at the rice gruel and throught, “The gruel is very nice. How was it obtained ?” And pondering and seeing how it had been obtained through the persuation of the deity, he said “ Friend, the alms food cannot be used.”
Instead of thinking “He does not eat the alms food brought by the likes of me,” MahÈ MoggallÈna at once took the bowl by the rim and turned it over on one side. As the rice gruel fell on the ground SÈriputta’s affliction vanished. From then on it did not appear again during forty five years.
Venerable SÈriputta said to his friend, “ Friend, even if my hungry bowels came out and trail on the ground, it was not fit to eat gruel got by verbal intimation.
And here too should be told the story of the Elder MahÈ Tissa who lived in Ciragumba. He was going on a journey durning a famine. Being tired in body and weak through lack of food and travel weariness, he lay down at the root of a mango tree covered with fruit. There were many fallen mangoes here and there. Though ownerless mangoes were lying on the ground near him, he would not eat them in the absence of someone to accept them from.
Then a lay man, who was older than he, came by and ate the mangoes. When the man came to know about his exhaustion, he gave him mango juice to drink. Then he mounted him on his back and took him to the village nearby.
Meanwhile the Elder admonished himself thus: “ Neither your mother nor your father nor your relatives and kin had done as much as this for you because of your pure morality. You must return his gratitude with meditation.”
So, stirred with urgency, he undertook meditation, and, comprehending the three characteristics of existence, developed insight. Then, while he was still mounted on the man’s back, he attained Arahantship.

Paccayasannissita sÊla is to be undertaken by means of understanding (paÒÒÈ). For this sÊla is accomplished by understanding, because one who possesses understanding is able to see the advantages and the dangers in requisites. So one should accomplish this morality by using requisites obtained lawfully and properly, after reviewing them with understanding in the way aforesaid.
Herein, reviewing is of two kinds: at the time of receiving requisites and at the time of using them. For use is blameless in one who at the time of receiving robes, alms food, etc.; reviewas them either as elements or as repulsive, and in one who reviews them thus at the time of using them.
Besides there are four kinds of use of requisites: use as theft, use as debt, use as an inheritance, use as a master. Herein, use by one who is unvirtuous is called ‘use as theft’. Use without reviewing by one who is virtuous is ‘use as debt’. Use of the requisites by the seven kinds of sekkha persons is called ‘use as an inheritance’ for they are the Buddha’s sons. Use by Arahants is called ‘use as a master’; because they have escaped the slavery of craving. One should use requisites as a master or as an inheritance.
The way to review requisites as elements is this: “This robe, food, etc., consists merely of the four elements. It is formed when conditions are favourable and dissolves soon after it has been formed. The same thing is true with the person who uses it.”
One reviews requisites as repulsive in this way: “This robe, food, etc., which is not in itself disgusting, becomes utterly disgusting on reaching this filthy body.”
In connection with fulfilling Paccayasanissita SÊla, the story of the novice Sa~gharakkhita the Nephew should be told. On seeing him eating a dish of rice, quite cold, his preceptor reminded him: “Novice , if you are not reviewing what you eat, you will burn your tongue.”
On hearing the preceptor’s words, the novice felt urged to act. So he reviewed the food and carried on his meditation. And, sitting in a single session, he reached the goal of Arahantship.
And so should any other man
Aspiring to end suffering
Make use of all the requisites
Wisely after reviewing them.
When an upright ordinary worldling can maintain the fourfold Parisuddhi sÊla perfectly pure without even the stain of a wrong thought because of its extreme purity, this pure morality known as ‘sÊlavisuddhi’ becomes the proximate cause for Arahantship itself.
Here the story of the Elder Sa~gharakkhita should be cited. The Elder, aged over eighty, was lying on his death-bed. The Order of Bhikkhus questioned him about his attainment of the supramundane state. The Elder said, “I have no supramundane state.”
Then the young bhikkhu who was attending on him said, “ Venerable sir, people have come from as much as twelve leagues away, thinking that you have reached NibbÈna. It will be a disappointment for many if you die as an ordinary man.”
The Elder said, “ Friend, intending to see the Blessed One Metteyya, I did not try for insight. So help me to sit up and give me the chance.”
The attendant helped the Elder to sit up and went out. As he went out the Elder reached Arahantship and he gave a sign by snapping his fingers. The Order assembled and said to him, “Venerable sir, you have done a marvellous thing in achieving the supramundane state in a short instant in the hour of death.”
The Elder said, “That was not difficult, friends. But rather I will tell you what is more difficult. Friends, I see no action done by me without mindfulness and unknowingly since the time I went forth.”

What is the defiling of morality ?
When the moral precepts are broken, torn, pierced, blotched or mottled, the morality is said to be defiled. The breaking, tearing, etc., of the moral precepts occur on account of gain, fame, relatives, life, etc., or due to the sevenfold association with sexual feeling.
When a man has broken his training precepts at the beginning or at the end in any instance of the seven classes of offences, his sÊla is torn, like a cloth that is cut at the edge. (The seven classes of offences are pÈrajikÈ, sa~ghadisesÈ, pÈcittiyÈ, pÈtidesaniyÈ, dukkaÔÈ, thullaccayÈ, and dubbhÈsitÈ.)
But When he has broken the moral precepts in the middle, it is called pierced, like a cloth that is pierced in the middle. When two or three moral precepts are broken in succession, the sÊla is called blotched, like a cow having black or red blotches on the back or the belly. When alternate moral precepts are broken all over the training course or if the moral training is broken at intervals, the sÊla is said to be mottled, like a cow with spots or areas of different colours without a regular pattern.
These show how the morality is broken or defiled on account of gain, fame, relatives, bodily organs, one’s own life, etc.
The morality is also defiled by association with seven types of minor sexuality.

1. A person claims to lead a life of moral purity for he does not enter into actual sexual intercourse with women. Yet he agrees to massage, manipulation, bathing and rubbing down by women. He enjoys it, desires it, and takes satisfaction in it.
2. Although he does not agree to these things, yet he jokes, plays and amuses himself with women.
3. He gazes and stares at women eye to eye.
4. He listens to the voice of women through a wall or through a fence as they laugh or talk or sing or weep.
5. He recalls laughs and talks and games that he formerly had enjoyed with women.
6. He sees and appreciates a wealthy man or the son of a wealthy man surrounded with five kinds of senses and indulging in sensual pleasure.
7. He leads the life of purity longing for the luxuries of deities, thinking “Through this morality or this moral training I shall become a great deity or some lesser deity.
In each of the above cases, he enjoys it, desires it, and takes satisfaction in it. On account of this, the morality of one who leads the life of purity is torn, pierced, blotched, mottled and defiled.
He is said to lead a life of purity that is unclean. As he is bound by the bond of minor sexuality, he will not be released from birth, ageing, death, worry, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair. So he will not emancipate from suffering.

What is the cleansing of morality?
When the moral precepts are not broken, not torn, not pierced, not blotched, and not mottled, the morality is said to be clean and pure.
Cleansing of morality is accomplished :
(i) By the complete non-breaking of the training precepts for the purpose of gain, fame, relatives, bodily organs or one’s own life;
(ii) By making amends for those broken by the faults of negligence, etc.;
(iii) By the absence of the seven bonds of minor sexuality;
(iv) By the non-arising of such evil things as anger, enmity, ungratefulness, domineering, envy, averice, deceit, treachery, obstinacy, arrogance, pride, hautiness, conceit and heedlessness;
(v) By the arising of such good qualities as fewness of desires, contentment and austerity. (M. Sutta 24)
Such morality, not broken for the purpose of gain, fame, etc., and rectified by making amends for those broken, and not damaged by the bonds of minor sexuality and by such evil things as anger, emity, etc., is called entirely untorn, not pierced, unblotched, and unmottled.
This unbroken and pure morality is called ‘bhujissa sÊla’ as it revolts against craving and liberates one from the enslavement by craving. It is called ‘viÒÒupasaÔÔha sÊla’ as it is praised by the wise and ‘aparÈmaÔÔha sÊla’ as it is not destroyed by craving and wrong views. It is conducive to concentration as it conduces to either access concentration or ecstatic (jhÊna) concentration.
The cleaning of morality comes about in two ways: through seeing the dangers of impure morality, and through seeing the benefits of pure morality.

The disadvantages of broken and impure morality should be understood from the discourses beginning “ O bhikkhus, there are these five dangers for the unvirtuous who fail to keep pure morility.” (A. iii, 252)
Moreover, on account of impure morality,
1. An unvirtuous person is displeasing to deities and human beings.
2. He is not admonished by his coresidents to lead the life of purity.
3. He suffers when unvirtuousness is censured and feels remorseful when the virtuous are praised.
4. He is as dull and ugly as hemp cloth owing to his unvirtuousness.
5. Contact with him is painful because those who fall in with his views are brought to long-lasting suffering in woeful abodes.
6. He is worthless because he causes no great fruit to arise in those who offer him requisites.
7. He is hard to purify as a cesspit many years old.
8. He is like a log from a pyre for he is outside both recluseship and the lay state. Though he claims to be a bhikhu, he is no blikkhu so he is like a donky following a herd of cattle.
9. He is always nervous and scared like a man who is everyone’s enemy.
10. He is as unfit to live with as a dead carcase.
11. Though he may have the qualities of learning, he is unfit for the homage of his fellows as a charnel ground fire is unfit for the homage of brahmans.
12. He is as incapable of reaching the distinction of attaining jhÈna, magga and phala as a blind man is of seeing a visible object.
13. He is hopeless for treading along the Noble Eightfold Path and reaching its goal as a beggar-boy is of a kingdom.
14. Although he fancies he is happy, yet he suffers because he reaps suffering as mentioned in the Discourse of the Mass of Fire (Aggikkhandhopama Sutta, A.iv, 128-134)
What pleasure has a bhikkhu of broken sÊla for not forsaking sense pleasures, which bear fruit of pain more violent than the pain in the embracing of a great mass of fire burning, blazing and glowing?
What pleasure has he in accepting homage if he, having failed in moral training, has to suffer pain that will excel in agony the crushing of his legs with horse-hair ropes?
What pleasure has a bhikkhu, devoid of virtue, in accepting salutations of his devotees, which will result in pain more severe than the pain produced by stabbing with a spear?
What is the pleasure in the use of garments for one without restraint, whereby he will be for long forced to wear a blazing iron sheet in hell?
Although to him his alms food may seem tasty, it is direct poison because of which he surely will have to swallow for long burning iron balls.
And when the virtueless make use of couches and chairs, though reckoned to be pleasing, it is pain because they will be tortured long indeed on red-hot blazing iron beds and chairs.
Then what delight is there for one unvirtuous in occupying a dwelling given in faith, since for that reason he will have to dwell shut up inside a blazing iron pan?
The Teacher of the whole world described an unvirtuous person in terms of ‘a person of suspect habits, full of corruption’, ‘a worthless person like rubbish’, ‘a lustful person drenched with defilements,’ ‘a wicked and evil person rotten within.’
What is the life he leads, since virtuous persons avoid him as those who like to decorate themselves with ornaments keep far away from dung or from a corpse?

1. Having seen the disadvantages or dangers of impure morality, one should see the benefits of perfected pure morality in the opposite sense.
2. A bhikkhu of pure morality wears his robes and uses his bowl gracefully. His manner gives pleasure and inspires respect towards him. His going forth will bear its fruit.
3. Self-reproach cannot enter the heart of a bhikkhu of pure morality as no darkness can enter sun-light.
4. As the moon endowed with bright light shines gracefully in the sky, so does the bhikkhu with pure morality shine forth in the Ascetics’ wood. (M. Suttas 31 and 32)
5. Now if the bodily perfume of virtuous bhikkhus can please even deities, what will be the perfume of his virtue? The perfume of morality surpasses all other perfumes. It diffuses through all directions up to celestical abodes.
6. The meritorious deeds such as offering the four requisites to a virtuous bhikkhu, though they may be few, will bear much fruit. So he becomes the centre of honour and devotional offering.
7. There are no cankers at all here and now to plague (inflict) the virtuous bhikkhu; he digs out the roots of suffering in the lives to come.
8. If he wishes for human luxuries or celestial luxuries, he can easily attain them. But his mind seeks no other thing than the happiness of NibbÈna, the state where utter peace prevails.
9. Such is the blessed fruit of pure morality, materializing in many varied forms. So let a wise man know all the benefits of pure morality, which is the root of all worldly and supramundane happiness.

SÊla has the characteristic of composing (sÊlana) in the sense of keeping bodily and verbal actions well and also in the sense of upholding wholesome states such as concentration and wisdom.
In undertaking moral training we indirectly control our mind not to transgress moral precepts by keeping our bodily and verbal actions well. By doing so we also suppress gross, violent defilements (vitikkama kilesas) not to arise in the mind. So we are purifying our mind from aggressive defilements to reach the state of ‘sÊlavisuddhi’, i.e., moral purity.
A person who clearly sees the disadvantages and dangers of impure morality and the benefits of pure morality will cultivate pure morality. When he attains pure morality, he no longer wishes for human luxuries or celestial luxuries. His mind seeks no other thing than the happiness of NibbÈna. So the state of pure morality called ‘SÊla - visuddhi’ is conducive to concentration and wisdom.
After taming and culturing the mind to be free from gross, violent defilements, it is proper to proceed to the next step for taming the mind futher by undertaking mental training called ‘Tranquility Meditation’ (Samatha bhÈvanÈ) in order to purify the mind from moderate defilements (pariyuÔÔhÈna kilesas) which have arisen in the mind and kept agitating the mind.
The Buddha had pointed out that well purified morality is the beginning of all profitable things (S. v, 143). He also advised the monk BÈhiya to cleanse first the beginning of profitable things which consist of well purified morality together with the right view. “ BÈhiya, when you have established pure morality and right view, you stand on sÊla, rely on sÊla, and develop the four foundations of mindfulness.” (MahÈvagga Samyutta, BÈhiya Sutta)
Also according to the seven stages of purifying the mind, one must first cultivate moral purity (sÊla visuddhi) and then mental purity (citta visuddhi) which is the mind tree from all defilements. To cultivate mental purity, one must undertake tranquillity meditation. Thus moral purity is truly the foundation of meditation.
When an upright ordinary person can maintain the fourfold PÈrisuddhi sÊla pefectly pure without even the stain of a wrong thought, that pure morality known as ‘sÊlavisuddhi’ becomes the proximate cause for Arahantship itself as it has been demonstrated by the Elder Sa~gharakkhita and the Elder Cittagutta.
So we should ardently develop perfectly pure morality to lay down the strong foundation of tranquility and insight meditation.

1. ‘Visuddhimagga’ by BhaddantÈcariya Buddhaghosa, translated into Myanmar by Ven.NandamÈlÈ, Vol.1, pp.12-110.
2. ‘Visuddhimagga’ by BhaddantÈcariya Buddhaghosa, translated into Myanmar by Ven. MahÈsi SayÈdaw, Vol.1, pp.23-182.
3. ‘The Path of Purity’ (Visuddhimagga by BhaddantÈcariya Buddhaghosa), translated into English by Pe Maung Tin, PTS, 1971,
pp.8-65.
4. ‘The Path of Purification’ (Visuddhimagga by BhaddantÈcariya Buddhaghosa), translated into English by Bhikkhu ©ÈÓamoli, pp.6-58.
5. Digha NikÈya, ii, 86, MahÈparinibbÈna Sutta.
6. MahÈvagga Samyutta, BÈhiya Sutta.
7. A~guttara NikÈya, iv, 128-134, Aggikhandopama Sutta.

1. What is sÊla? In what sense it is called sÊla?
2. Describe the fivefold restraint which represents sÊla.
3. What are the characteristic, the function, the manifestation and the proximate cause of sÊla?
4. Describe the different classifications of sÊla as two kinds each.
5. Explain briefly (i) cÈritta sÊla and vÈritta sÊla, (ii) AbhisamÈ-cÈrika sÊla and ŒdibrahmacÈrika sÊla, (iii) Nissita sÊla and Anissita sÊla, (iv)KÈlapariyanta sÊla and ŒpÈÓakotika sÊla.
6. Describe the different classifications of sÊla as three kinds each.
7. Differentiate the following : (i) HÊna sÊla, Majjhima sÊla, and PaÓÊta sÊla, (ii) AttÈdhipateyya sÊla, LokÈdhipateyya sÊla and DhammÈdhipateyya sÊla.
8. Describe the following sÊlas briefly to show their differences: (i) HÈnabhÈgiya sÊla, ®hÊtibhagiya sÊla, and ViseabhÈgiya sÊla, NibbedhabhÈgiya sÊla; (ii) Pakati sÊla, ŒcÈra sÊla, DhammatÈ sÊla and Pubbahetuka sÊla.
9. What is PÈtimokkhasaÑvara sÊla? How should it be fulfilled?
10. What is IndriyasaÑvara sÊla? How should it be undertaken?
11. How should a bhikkhu accomplish ŒjÊvapÈrisuddhi sÊla?
12. Should lay devotees practise Paccayasanissita sÊla?
How should it be practised?
13. What is morality (sÊla)? What is the objective of moral training? What is meant by sÊlavisuddhi?
14. How should a person undertake moral training to attain sÊlavisuddhi?
15. Describe the fourfold morality called CatupÈrisuddhi sÊla.
16. What is sÊlavisuddhi? How should one cultivate catuparisuddhi sÊla to attain sÊlavisuddhi?
17. In what ways is morality defiled? What are the dangers of impure morality?
18. How is morality cleansed? What are the benefits of pure morality?
19. Why is well-purified morality regarded as the foundation of meditation?