The internal dangers are the five hindrances (nÊvaraÓas) and other defilements (kilesÈs) that arise together with the mind, and defile and taint the mind to be unwholesome and uncultured. The five hindrances are our closest enemies which prevent us from performing meritorious deeds, and obstruct the arising of moral consciousness, jhÈna and magga in our meditation.

The external dangers come from wicked persons, dangerous animals like tigers, wolves, snakes, scorpions, centipedes, and ghosts, ogres, ogresses, etc. One may encounter these dangers especially when one meditates alone in the forest.

To ward off these dangers, one should first undertake the guardian meditations at least for a few minutes before one practises the special meditation subject (parihÈriya kammaÔÔhÈna) for developing concentration.

The four guardian meditation subjects are:
1 MettÈ bhÈvanÈ – radiating loving kindness,
2 BuddhÈnussati – reflecting on the attributes of the Buddha,
3 Asubha bhÈvanÈ – reflecting on the repulsiveness of a corpse, and
4 MÈraÓÈnussati – reflecting on the nature of death.

These four meditation subjects serve as ‘sabbatthaka kammaÔÔhÈnas’, that is, meditation subjects generally desirable in all matters.

Before a bhikkhu residing in a monastery takes up his special meditation subject, he should first develop loving-kindness towards all bhikkhus in the monastery and then to the community of bhikkhus. He should sincerely radiate loving kindness thus:
‘May all be free from danger;
May they be free from mental suffering;
May they be free from bodily pain;
May they be healthy and happy always.’

Then he should radiate loving-kindness to all deities, to the rulers of the village of his alms resort, to all human beings in the village, and to all living beings in general.

By radiating loving-kindness in this way he produces kindness in his co-residents; so they are easy for him to live with. Kindly deities will protect him, and the village-rulers will protect his requisites. He is loved by men and deities alike. So he can go among the villagers without incurring their dislike since they trust him. With loving-kindness to all living beings he can wander unhindered everywhere.

Besides his mind is calm, tranquil, and joyful while his countenance is clear, serene, and pleasant. Since he wins the love of everybody, no one will try to cause him harm.

Then he should reflect on the attributes of the Buddha very respectfully. By doing so he is permeating his mind and body with the noble attributes. Thus his body will become as sacred as the special fragrance chamber of the Buddha. So his enemies, wild animals and ghosts will not do harm to him. Moreover, BuddhÈnussati will strengthen his faith and confidence in the Buddha as well as his mindfulness and wisdom.

Furthermore, he should also practise asubha bhÈvanÈ by reflecting on the repulsiveness of a corpse. This will subdue his lust and sever his attachment to his body as well as to other people’s bodies. When he is well established in the perception of loathsomeness, even divine objects cannot tempt his mind to greed.

Finally but not last, he should practise maranÈnussati by reflecting on the nature of death. He should reflect in this way: ‘My being alive is uncertain, but my death is certain’. The perception of death will subdue his pride, greed and anger. It will help him to give up improper search and to live without attachment with a growing sense of urgency.

Moreover, a meditator or yogÊ should always practise the four guardian meditations while he is performing his daily duties. As soon as he wakes up in the morning, he should reflect ‘arahaÑ, arahaÑ’, contemplating the noble attribute of the Buddha.

When he washes his face, and the face is in contact with cool water, he should contemplate: ‘May all beings be cool, calm, and pleasant as this cool, clear water.’

While he brushes his teeth, washes his mouth, takes a bath, defecates and urinates, he should contemplate on the repulsiveness of the body.

When he goes to bed, he contemplates thus: ‘A day has passed by, I am coming closer to death by one more day. My being alive is uncertain, and my death is certain’.

If he always practises the four guardian meditations daily at appropriate times, he will ward off all dangers, materialize his good wishes, and develop his five powers or controlling faculties – viz., faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration or one-pointedness of the mind, and wisdom. This will enhance his ability to undertake his special meditation effectively.

Now BuddhÈnussati and MaraÓÈnussati, if undertaken correctly, will lead to the access concentration (upacÈra samÈdhi) whereas asubha bhÈvanÈ will lead to the first jhÈna.

MettÈ bhÈvanÈ, again if practised correctly, will lead to the third r|pÈvacara jhÈna in the fourfold jhÈna method, or to the fourth r|pÈvacara jhÈna in the fivefold jhÈna method. All these mental concentrations can be used as the basis for proceeding to insight meditation (vipassanÈ bhÈvanÈ).

Thus the four guardian meditations, when developed fully, will be very beneficial and very effective for warding off all dangers, for protecting oneself and for developing the sterling qualities in oneself. So the essential instruction will be given for developing each guardian meditation to the fullest extent.

Then, when he has done the work connected with the meal and got rid of any drowsiness due to eating, he should seat himself comfortably on a well-prepared seat in a secluded place.

To start with, he should review the evils of hate and the advantages of forbearance. Why? Because hate has to be abandoned and forbearance acquired in the development of this meditation subject.

But he is not able to put away any unseen evil or to acquire any unknown advantage; therefore the evils of hate should be considered through such Suttas as:

“No higher rule, the Buddhas say, than patience,
And no NibbÈna higher than forbearance.”
(D. ii, 49; Dh. 184)

“Him I call a brahman who is strong in
forbearance, who makes an army of it.” (Dh. 399)

“ Angerless does he endure abuse,
beating and imprisonment,
patience his power and armed might –
that one I call a Brahmana.” (Dh. 399)

“ No greater thing exists than forbearance.” (S. i, 222)

Hate, hatred or anger stands for the immoral mental factor ‘dosa’, which is the most destructive element in the world. Before it destroys others, it will destroy one first. As soon as hate arises in the mind, anger-rooted consciousness occurs in association with ignorance, moral shamelessness, moral fearlessness and restlessness of the mind. So one becomes distracted, loses one’s sense of judgement, being ready to perform immoral actions at any time.

Anger-rooted consciousness is also accompanied with painful mental feeling which agitates the mind. Anger or hate will also give rise to sorrow, grief, lamentation and despair. It is the direct enemy of loving-kindness. If anger or hate is present in the mind, loving-kindness cannot arise. So if we want to develop loving-kindness, hate must be driven away.

Loving-kindness and forbearance are the two qualities of the same beautiful mental factor called ‘adosa’, which is the direct opposite of ‘dosa’. So by cultivating forbearance, anger or hate can be suppressed and loving-kindness can be developed. So the Buddha admired forbearance as the most noble austere practice.

Again to develop loving-kindness towards a very dear friend means to put him in the place of a neutral person, and should he experience the slightest pain, one feels disposed to weep. So this will also make one tired.

A neutral person is one whom one neither loves nor hates. To develop loving-kindness towards a neutral person means to put him in the place of a respected person or a dear person. So this will also make one tired.
When one thinks of one’s enemy, anger arises, and so one cannot develop loving-kindness towards him.
Thus one should not develop loving-kindness first towards the above four types of persons.
Also one should not specifically develop loving-kindness towards persons of the opposite sex, for if one does, lust will arise in him. So a male yogÊ should not develop loving-kindness specifically to a woman, and vice versa.
However, after one attains mettÈ-jhÈna and has broken the barriers between persons (sÊmÈsambheda), one can radiate loving-kindness to persons of the opposite sex in general such as sabbÈ itthiyo (all female persons) and sabbe purisÈ (all male persons).
One should never develop loving-kindness towards dead persons, for if one does so, one reaches neither absorption nor access. (Visuddhi, Myanmar, i, 287-8)

1 May I be free from enmity.
2 May I be free from mental suffering.
3 May I be free from bodily pain.
4 May I be well and happy.

After pervading oneself with loving-kindness, in order to proceed easily, one should develop loving-kindness towards one’s teacher or a person like him, one’s preceptor or a person like him, whom one adores and res- pects.

One should call to mind that person’s generosity, affectionate words, etc., to inspire love and endearment, and also that person’s morality, learning, etc., to inspire respect and reverence. Then one should develop loving-kindness towards that person in the following manner. With such a person, of course, one attains jhÈna absorption.
AyaÑ sappuriso 1 Avero hotu
2 AvyÈpajjho hotu
3 Anigho hotu
4 SukhÊ attÈnaÑ pariharÈtu.
May this good man be 1 free from enmity,
2 free from mental suffering,
3 from from bodily pain,
4 well and happy.
If the meditator has already attained the fourth jhÈna by his practice of ŒnÈpÈnassati, or better by his meditation on white kasiÓa, then making this jhÈna – concentration as the foundation of his meditation, he can quickly attain mettÈ-jhÈna in developing loving-kindness.

In this case the meditator first develops the fourth jhÈna by practising ŒnÈpÈnassati or better by meditation on the counter image of the white kasiÓa. The concentration based on white kasiÓa is better, because it is accompanied with more brilliant light. When the meditation light becomes very brilliant and dazzling, he emerges from the fourth jhÈna and focusses his mind on his teacher or a person of the same sex whom he loves and respects very much. The person will easily appear in the brilliant light.

Among the various postures of the person the yogÊ should choose the posture that he likes best. He should also visualize the happiest smiling appearance of the person that he has ever seen. He should visualize the person to be about six feet in front of him. Then focussing his attention on that person, he develops loving-kindness towards that person in the way mentioned earlier.

This development of loving-kindness will progress smoothly and quickly as it has the powerful support of the fourth-jhÈna samÈdhi developed by either ŒnÈpÈnassati or white-kasiÓa meditation. That jhÈna samÈdhi acts as powerful dependent condition. Because of that jhÈna samÈdhi, the meditator’s mind is calm and concentrated, free from all defilements, tender and malleable, and ready to undertake meditation.

After developing loving-kindness in four ways towards that respectable person, the meditator chooses one way which he likes best. Suppose he chooses the way ‘May this good man be free from mental suffering’. Then, visualizing the happiest form of that person with his face smiling, the yogÊ reflects repeatedly ‘May this good man be free from mental suffering’. This meditation on loving-kindness takes concept (paÒÒatti) as its object; so the mind should be fixed on ‘satta paÒÒatti’, the concept of living beings.

When the meditator’s mind is calm, quiet, tranquil, and well concentrated on the form of the respectable person who is smiling and free from mental suffering for one hour or more, he should reflect on the jhÈna factors. If the jhÈna factors – vitakka, vicÈra, pÊti, sukha, ekaggatÈ – appear clearly in his wisdom-eye, then it can be assumed that he has attained the first jhÈna.

After practising to acquire mastery in five ways with respect to the first jhÈna, he eliminates vitakka and vicÈra to attain the second jhÈna. Then again after practising to acquire mastery in five ways with respect to the second jhÈna, he eliminates pÊti to attain the third jhÈna. He cannot go higher to the fourth jhÈna, because loving-kindness cannot associate together with equanimity (upekkhÈ) in the mind.

Then he develops loving-kindness by reflecting in the remaining three ways, one after another, going up to the third jhÈna in each case. When he is reflecting ‘May this good man be free from enmity’, he should visualize the man to be free from enmity. Again when he is reflecting ‘May this good man be free from bodily pain’, he should visualize the person to be free from bodily pain. And when he is reflecting ‘May this good man be well and happy’, again he should visualize the person to be well and happy. He should also develop loving-kindness to acquire mastery in five ways with respect to each of these jhÈnas.

According to the instructions given in Visuddhi Magga (i, 289) and MahÈÔÊkÈ (i, 354), one should develop loving-kindness up to the third jhÈna towards each person. As there are four ways for developing loving-kindness, one should attain the third jhÈna in each way.

As the attitude wishing the respectable and adorable person to be free from enmity, to be free from mental suffering, to be free from bodily pain, and to be well and happy are not the qualities of equanimity, the fourth jhÈna which is assiciated with equanimity cannot be attained.

When the meditator attains success in the manner described above, he should develop loving-kindness in the same way towards another respectable and adorable person. He should develop loving-kindness succefully towards at least ten such persons.

Then he should develop loving-kindness in the same way towards very dear persons including parents, brothers and sisters, relatives and friends, one after another. The persons should be of the same sex as the yogÊ, and the third jhÈna should be attained in each of the four ways of developing loving-kindness.

Then the yogÊ should develop loving-kindness in the same way towards at least ten neutral persons of the same sex one after another. He should visualize each one clearly in his brilliant meditation light, and develop loving-kindness in four ways towards the person. He should reach the third jhÈna in each way and acquire mastery in five ways with respect to all jhÈnas.

Then he should develop loving-kindness in the same way to his enemies or persons he hates. All the persons towards whom loving-kindness is being radiated must be of the same sex as one and must be living. If one does not have any enemy or hated person, then one does not develop loving-kindness towards enemies.

Before one develops mettÈ towards an enemy, one should develop it first on respectable and adorable persons, then towards dear persons, and then towards neutral persons until one attains the third jhÈna in each case. When the mind is tender, malleable, and well-developed, and the meditation light is very intense and bright, then one visualizes the enemy in the meditation light and develops loving-kindness in four ways towards him: “May he be free from enmity, free from mental suffering, free from bodily pain, and may he be well and happy.”

After radiating mettÈ in this way a few times, one chooses the way one likes most, and develops loving-kindness towards the enemy in this way till one attains the third jhÈna.

If one cannot attain jhÈna due to the resentment towards the enemy, one must drive away the resentment by reflecting in many ways as described in Visuddhi Magga. For example, one may reflect on the good qualities of the enemy while neglecting his bad qualities just as one removes the bones from the meat and eats only the meat.

If one cannot still make one’s resentment or anger subside, one should reflect Anamatakka Samyutta in which the Buddha described that in the long chain of one’s uncountable existences in the round of rebirths (saÑsÈra), there is no being who has not been related to one as father, mother, son, daughter, brother or sister, etc.

If one’s anger or resentment does not subside yet, then one should develop compassion towards him by reflecting that all worldlings are subjected to old age, sickness, death and woeful suffering. Or he may reflect on the great benefits of developing loving-kindness. When one’s anger or hatred towards the enemy has subsided, one can develop loving-kindness towards that person up to the third jhÈna.

One should cultivate loving-kindness in this way towards all one’s enemies one after another. One should also practise to acquire mastery in five ways with respect to all these jhÈnas.

2 Piya – dear person including adorable and respectable persons and very dear friends,
3 Majjhatta – neutral person whom one neither loves nor hates,
4 Veri – enemy or a person one hates,
and when one can eliminate the demarcations differentiating them as ‘This is I, this is a dear person, this is a neutral person, this is an enemy’, having no preference to any one to let him enjoy bliss or suffer pain, then one is said to have broken the barriers between persons or attained ‘SÊmÈsambheda’.

We should develop lovingkindness to be boundless and limitless like this to make it fully bloom. To achieve this goal one must develop equal jhÈna-mettÈ towards dear persons, towards neutral persons, and towards enemies after cultivating mettÈ in oneself for some time.

First one should develop the fourth jhÈna of ŒnÈpÈnassati or better of white kasiÓa that one has already attained. When the meditation light becomes intense and bright, one should develop lovingkindness towards oneself for a few minutes. One cannot attain absorption by pervading oneself with mettÈ.

Then one should visualize a dear person to appear in the meditation light and develop lovingkindness in the way described above to attain the third jhÈna. Next one visualizes an enemy to appear in the meditation light and develop lovingkindness to the third jhÈna again.

Next one cultivates lovingkindness towards oneself for a few minutes, and then to another dear person, another neutral person, and another enemy, one after another up till the third jhÈna. Next again one develops lovingkindness towards oneself, towards another dear person, another neutral person, and another enemy up till the third jhÈna as before.

Thus changing the dear person, the neutral person, and the enemy each time, one develops lovingkindness towards atta, piya, majjhatta, verÊ, atta, piya, majjhatta, verÊ, and so on for many times. One cultivates lovingkindness up to the third jhÈna every time one develops metta towards the dear person, the neutral person and the enemy, thus maintaining equal love towards all of them.

When one can maintain equal love towards oneself, the dear person, the neutral person, and the enemy, one attains sÊmÈsambhedha, that is one has broken the barriers between various persons. This means that one can truly love all persons as oneself.

This method of developing lovingkindness is successfully practised in International Buddha SÈsana Centres, Myanmar.

In developing 528 modes of mettÈ:
1 The mind-deliverance of lovingkindness (mettÈ cetovimutti) is practised with unspecified pervasion in five ways;
2 The mind-deliverance of lovingkindness is practised with specified pervasion in seven ways; and
3 The mind-deliverance of lovingkindness is practised with directional pervasion in ten ways. (Ps. ii, 130)

1 SabbÈ iÔÔhiyo – all female beings
2 Sabbe purisÈ – all male beings
3 Sabbe ariyÈ – all noble persons
4 Sabbe anariyÈ – all not noble persons or worldlings
5 Sabbe devÈ – all deities or gods
6 Sabbe manussÈ – all human beings
7 Sabbe vinipÈtikÈ – all woeful beings in four lower abodes

These seven kinds of specified beings are pervaded with lovingkindness in four ways each:
1 SabbÈ itthiyo (i) averÈ hontu,
(ii) avyÈpajjhÈ hontu,
(iii) anighÈ hontu,
(iv) sukhÊ attÈnaÑ pariharantu.

1 May all female beings be
(i) free from enmity (cultivate up to third jhÈna),
(ii) free from mental suffering (cultivate up to third jhÈna),
(iii) free from bodily pain (cultivate up to third jhÈna),

(iv) well and happy. (cultivate up to third jhÈna).

Repeat with the remaining six kinds of beings.
(2) Total modes of mettÈ = 7x4=28
(1)+(2) Total modes of mettÈ = 20+28=48

(iv) well and happy. (cultivate up to third jhÈna).
Repeat with the remaining eleven kinds of beings.
Total modes of mettÈ = 12 kinds of beings x 4 ways =48

2 May all living beings in the western direction be
(i) free from enmity (cultivate up to third jhÈna)
(ii) free from mental suffering (cultivate up to third jhÈna)
(iii) free from bodily pain (cultivate up to third jhÈna)
(iv) well and happy (cultivate up to third jhÈna)
Repeat with the remaining eleven kinds of
beings.
Total modes of mettÈ = 12 kinds of persons x 4
ways = 48

3 to 10 Repeat as above for the remaining eight
directions.
(3) Total modes of mettÈ for ten directions = 48 x 10= 480
(1)+(2) Total modes of mettÈ without specifying directions = 48
(1)+(2)+(3) Total modes of mettÈ = 528
So altogether there are 528 modes of mettÈ absorptions. If one lives with any one of these absorptions, pervading all beings with lovingkindness, then one is truly living in the divine abiding.
It is described in DÊghanikÈya (D. i, 250; Vbh. 272) as follows:
“ MettÈsahagatena cetasÈ ekaÑ disaÑ pharittvÈ viharati, tathÈ dutiyaÑ, tathÈ tatiyaÑ, tathÈ catutthaÑ, iti uddhamadho tiriyaÑ sabbadhi sabbattatÈya sabbavantaÑ lokaÑ mettÈsahagatena cetasÈ vipulena mahaggatena appamaÓena averena avyÈpajjhena pharittvÈ viharati.”

“ He dwells pervading one direction with his heart endued with loving-kindness, likewise the second direction, likewise the third direction, likewise the fourth direction and so above, below, and around; everywhere and equally without any discrimination between various types of beings he dwells pervading the entire world with his heart
endued with lovingkindness, abundant, exalted, measureless, free from enmity, and free from affliction.”

This versatility of radiating lovingkindness at will comes about only in one whose consciousness has reached absorption in the first jhÈna and the rest.

Now a meditator with absolute confidence who wants to practise BuddhÈnussati should go into solitary retreat in a favourable abode and recollect the special attributes of the Enlightened One as follows:
“Itipi so BhagavÈ - ArahaÑ
- SammÈsambuddho
- VijjÈcaraÓasampanno
- Sugato
- Lokavid|
- Anuttaropurisadhamma- sarathi
- SatthÈ devamanussanaÑ
- Buddho
- BhagavÈ ”
He should recollect repeatedly with the correct understanding of the attributes as follows.

1 So BhagavÈ itipi ArahaÑ
The Blessed One is known as ArahaÑ bacause he has destroyed all defilements and become noble, worthy of special veneration by all men, devas and brahmÈs.

2 So bhagavÈ itipi SammÈsambuddho
The Blessed One is known as SammÈsambuddho because he is fully enlightened understanding all that should be understood by himself.

3 So BhagavÈ itipi VijjÈcaraÓasampanno
The Blessed One is known as VijjÈcaraÓasampanno because he is endowed with supreme wisdom and virtuous conduct.

4 So BhagavÈ itipi Sugato
The Blessed One is known as Sugato because of being gone to an excellent place (NibbÈna) and because he speaks only what is true and beneficial.

5 So BhagavÈ itipi Lokavid|
The Blessed One is known as Lokavid| because he knows three worlds: the world of beings (satta-loka), the world of formations (sa~khÈraloka) and the world of location (okÈsa-loka).

6 So BhagavÈ itipi AnuttaropurisadhammasÈrathi
The Blessed One is known as Anuttaro purisa dhammasarathi because he is incomparable in taming those who deserve to be tamed.

7 So BhagavÈ itipi SatthÈ devamanussÈnaÑ
The Blessed One is known as SatthÈ devamanussÈnaÑ because he is the guiding teacher of gods (devas and brahmÈs) and men.

8 So BhagavÈ itipi Buddho
The Blessed One is known as Buddho because he himself is enlightened and he can enlighten others to know the four Noble Truths and become noble persons (AriyÈs).

9 So BhagavÈ itipi BhagavÈ
The Blessed One is known as BhagavÈ because he is the most exalted and blessed One. He is blessed with special qualities such as six kinds of glory – Issariya, Dhamma, Yasa, SÊri, kÈma, Payatta.

Issariya – the ability to control one’s mind skilfully as one wishes;
Dhamma – the ability to realize very skilfully the four Path-wisdoms (Magga-ÒÈÓas), the four Fruition-wisdoms (Phala-ÒÈÓas), and NibbÈna, known as the nine Lokuttara-dhammas;
Yasa – the ability to have one’s fame spread out truly in all directions throughout the human world, the deva world, and the brahmÈ world;
SÊri – the ability to have a well proportioned and fully developed body with comely, sublime, and ado-rable appearance, having thirty-two major distinctive features and eighty minor characteristic signs on the person of the Buddha;
KÈma – the ability to accomplish supernormal performances immediately as one wishes;
Payatta – the supreme effort which supports one to reach the summit.
When the meditator is recollecting the Buddha’s attributes as above repeatedly, his mind is not obsessed or distressed by greed, by hate or by delusion; but it is quite upright with the Buddha’s attributes as its object.

When his mind is not obsessed by greed, hate and delusion, he has suppressed all the hindrances, and his mind faces the meditation subject with rectitude. Then his initial application (vitakka) and sustained application (vicÈra) occur with an inclination towards the Buddha’s special qualities. By reflecting on the Buddha’s attributes, he continues to exercise vitakka and vicÈra; and soon joy (pÊti) arises in him.
With his mind joyful, with joy with proximate cause, his bodily and mental distrurbances are tranquillized by tranquillity (passaddhi). When the disturbances have been tranquillized, bodily and mental bliss (sukha) arises in him. When he is blissful, his mind becomes concentrated with the Blessed One’s attributes as its object. And so the jhÈna factors eventually arises in a single moment.

However, as the attributes of the Buddha are profound, and the meditator is being occupied by recollecting the special qualities of many sorts, the jhÈna is only access and does not reach absorption. In other words, the neighbourhood concentration (upacÈra-samÈdhi) is the highest concentration one can attain in practising BuddhÈnussati. And this access jhÈna itself is also called ‘BuddhÈnussati’, because it arises with the recollection of the Buddha’s special qualities as the means.

He should then change his attention from the Buddha’s image to the Buddha’s attribute and reflect on it again and again. If the Buddha’s image does not appear, he should regard the Buddha statue that appears in his meditation light as the real Buddha and reflect on the Buddha’s attribute repeatedly.

He should reflect on all the nine attributes of the Buddha one after another, and then choose the one attribute which he likes best and reflect on it repeatedly – for example, ‘arahaÑ, arahaÑ’. When his concentration grows in strength, the Buddha’s image will disappear while his mind remains focussed on the special attribute. If it is so, he should not try to recall or search for the Buddha’s image; he should just focus his mind on the attribute.
With the strong support of the fourth jhÈna concentration, he will soon attain the access jhÈna in BuddhÈnussati. When his mind remains calmly focussed on the attribute for one hour or more without any distraction, he should view the jhÈna factors. He will realize that he has reached the access jhÈna as he can see the jhÈna factors to be well developed.

He should then reflect on the remaining attributes of the Buddha one after another until he attains access jhÈna in each case. He should also practise to acquire mastery with respect to this access jhÈna.

1 He reverses his Teacher, the Buddha, with great res- pect.
2 He attains fullness of faith or confidence in the Buddha.
3 He attains good mindfulness.
4 He develops wisdom and understanding.
5 He gains a lot of merit.
6 He has much joy and happiness (bliss).
7 He overcomes fear and dread.
8 He is able to endure pain.
9 He comes to feel as if he were living in the Master’s presence.
10 His body, permeated and inhibited by the Buddha’s attributes, becomes as worthy of veneration as a chamber of relics.

11 His mind bends towards the sphere of the Buddha.

12 When he encounters an opportunity to commit an immoral action, he feels ashamed and frightened to commit it as though he were in front of the Teacher.

13 Even if he does not attain Path-consciousness and its Fruition in the present existence, he is at least headed for a happy destiny.

Ten kinds of corpses suitable for meditation on foulness are described in Visuddhimagga (the Path of Purification).
1 UddhumÈtaka – rotten, bloated corpse;
2 VinÊlaka – blue-black corpse with patchy discolouration;
3 Vipubbaka – festering corpse with pus oozing out;
4 Vicchiddaka – a corpse cut in the middle;
5 VikhÈyitaka – a gnawned corpse;
6 Vikkhittaka – scattered corpse, i.e. the limbs, the head, etc., are scattered here and there;
7 Hatavikkhittaka – the hacked and scattered corpse;
8 Lohitaka – blood-smeared corpse;
9 PuÄuvaka – worm-infested corpse;
10 AÔÔhika – a skeleton.

The meditator who wants to undertake asubha bhÈvanÈ should first learn the meditation subject from a qualified teacher. The teacher should explain it all, that is, the directions for going to the corpse with the aim of acquiring the sign of foulness, for characterizing the surrounding signs, for apprehending the sign of foulness in the corpse in eleven ways, for reviewing the path of going and coming, and for attaining the jhÈna in the meditation subject.

When the meditator has learnt it all well, he should go to a suitable abode or monastery and live there while seeking a suitable corpse. He should make the acquaintance of the man who looks after a cemetery and seek his help for finding the kind of corpse which he wants to use for the meditation on foulness. The corpse must be of the same sex as the meditator.

The meditator should go alone to the corpse at a quiet time without renouncing his basic meditation subject and keeping it always in mind. He should approach the corpse down wind and stand where the corpse appears clearly, and his mind is earnest, energetic and under control. He should stand not too far off or too near, or too much towards the feet or the head.

Then he should characterize the surrounding signs, that is, he notes carefully the features of the things around the corpse such as a stone or anthill or tree or bush.

Then he should apprehend the sign or corpse in the following six ways:
1 By its colour – note whether it is the body of one who is black, brown or white.

2 By its mark – note whether it is the body of one who is young, middle-aged or old.

3 By its shape – note the shape of its head, neck, hand, chest, belly, hips, thigh, calf, foot, one after another.

4 By its direction – note that from the navel downwards is the lower direction, and that from the navel upwards is the upper direction.
5 By its location – note the location of the head, the hand, the foot, the middle of the body.

6 By its delimitation – he can define thus: “This body is delimited below by the soles of the feet, above by the tips of the hair, all round by the skin; the space so delimited is filled with thirty-two pieces of corpse.”

If he could not develop the acquired sign (uggaha nimitta) with such notations, he should apprehend the corpse again in five more ways:

7 By its joints – note three joints in the right arm, three in the left arm, three in the right leg, three in the left leg, one neck joint and one waist joint which make up fourteen major joints. All together there are one hundred and eighty joints.

8 By its openings – note the opening or the hollow between the arm and the side, the opening between the legs, the opening of the ear.


Also note the opened or closed state of the eyes as well as of the mouth.

9 By its concavities – note the concavities of the eye-sockets, of the mouth, of the neck, or of any concave place on the body.

10 By its convexities – note any raised place on the body such as the knees, the chest, the nose, the forehead, etc.

11 By its surrounding – the whole body of the corpse should be defined all round and with respect to its surrounding.

After noting the whole body in detail with meditation knowledge, he should focus his mind on the corpse

and contemplate: “asubha, asubha” or “foulness, foulness”
He should apprehend the sign thoroughly in the corpse in the way already described. He should advert his mind to it with well-established mindfulness. He should see that it is properly remembered, properly defined, by doing that again and again. He should open his eyes, look and apprehend the sign a hundred times, a thousand times, contemplating: “asubha, asubha” or “foulness, foulness”.

He should also occasionally close his eyes and advert his mind to it. As he does so again and again, the acquired sign (uggaha nimitta) becomes properly apprehended by him. When is it properly apprehended? When he can see the corpse with his mind-eye (i.e.. with closed eyes) as clearly as he sees it with open eyes, then the acquired sign is properly apprehended.

He should then try to develop the counter sign (paÔibhÈga nimitta) and the first jhÈna on the spot. If he is unable to do so, he should return to his lodging, keeping that same meditation in mind, with mindfulness well established, and with his faculties being turned inwards.

Now just as a pauper who acquired a treasure of gems would guard and love it with great affection, feeling reverence for it as one who appreciates the value of it, so too the meditator should guard the sign, loving it and feeling reverence for it as one who appreciates the value of it.

In his night quarters or in his day quarters he should keep his mind anchored there thus: “asubha, asubha” or “foulness, foulness”. And he should advert his mind to the sign, bring it to mind and strike it with thought and applied thought over and over again.

As he does so, the counter sign arises. Here is the difference between the two signs. The acquired sign (uggaha nimitta) appears as an ugly, hideous, dreadful and frightening sight whereas the counter sign (paÔibhÈga nimitta) appears like a prosperous man with plump limbs lying down after eating his fill.

Simultaneousely with his acquiring the counter sign his lust is abandoned by suppression owing to his

giving no attention to sense objects. And owing to his abandoning of sense desires and keeping it far away, ill-will is abandoned too.

Likewise sloth-and-torpor is abandoned through exertion of energy; agitation-and-worry through devotion to peaceful things that cause no remorse; and uncertainty or doubt about the Teacher, about the way, about the fruit of the way, is abandoned through the actual experience of the blissful upacÈra-jhÈna which he has now attained. So the five hindrances are abandoned.

Also at that moment the applied thought or vitakka with the characteristic of directing the mind onto the counter sign, and the sustained thought or vicÈra with the characteristic of pondering and joy (pÊti), tranquillity (passaddhi), bliss (sukha), and the unification of citta
and cetasikas on the counter sign, that is ekaggatÈ, all become distinct. So all the jhÈna factors become manifest.

From the time the counter sign appears, he has reached the access jhÈna. Now he anchors his mind on the counter sign and repeatedly reflects: “asubha, asubha” or “foulness, foulness”. His concentration will rise gradually, and sooner or later he will reach the first r|pÈvacara jhÈna. He should practise on to gain mastery in five ways with respect to this jhÈna.

Due to the repulsive nature of the meditation subject and the fact that the mind could not be anchored on the counter sign without the applied thought (vitakka), only the first jhÈna can be attained in asubha bhÈvanÈ.

When the meditation wisdom associated with the fourth-jhÈna samÈdhi radiates very bright glittering light in all directions illuminating the surroundings, the meditator recalls the sign of the most repulsive corpse having the same sex as he does that he has seen formerly. He strives to observe that corpse under his bright wisdom light.

With the help of this bright, penetrative light, he tries to reobserve the corpse as he has seen it before. When he can see the corpse clearly under the bright wisdom light, he focusses his meditating mind calmly on the corpse in its most repulsive position, and reflects repeatedly: “paÔik|la, paÔikula” or “repulsive, repulsive”.

When his meditating mind remains calmly fixed on the sign of the corpse for one hour, two hours, or more, the sign of the corpse will change from the acquired sign (uggaha nimitta) to the counter sign (paÔibhÈga nimitta). The sign of the corpse which the meditator sees vividly as if he is looking at the corpse with open eyes is the acquired image or sign. (Visuddhi, i, 180)
UggahanimittaÑ vir|paÑ vibhacchaÑ
BheravadassanaÑ hutvÈ upaÔÔhÈti.
PaÔibhÈganimittaÑ pana yÈvadatthaÑ
BhuÒjitvÈ nipanno th|la~gapacca~gapuriso
viyo. (Visuddhi. i, 183-4)

Because the bhÈvanÈ-manasikÈra which is reflecting on the sign of the corpse is not yet well developed and exalted, and also because the sign of the corpse is not yet very calm, the acquired sign appears as a hideous, ugly, dreadful and frightening sight. When the counter sign arises, the bhÈvanÈ-manasikÈra is well developed and exalted, and the sign of the corpse becomes calm and steady. So the counter sign appears like a prosperous man with plump limbs lying down after eating his fill. (Visuddhi.i, 183-4; MahÈtÊ.i, 210)

Observing that counter sign the yogÊ reflects many times as “paÔik|la, paÔik|la” or “repulsive, repulsive” until his meditating mind remains established calmly on that sign for one hour, two hours or more. Then he reviews the jhÈna factors to find them clearly evident. The meditator now attains the first jhÈna. He should practise well to gain mastery in five ways with respect to this jhÈna.

The young bhikkhu, Va~gÊsa, was on his alms-round when he met an exceptionally beautiful woman who offered him food. Immediately strong lust was aroused in his heart, and he had to call for help from his teacher, Venerable Œnanda. The latter reminded him to recall the sign of foulness. As soon as he could recall the sign of foulness that he had developed formerly, his lust died down and he could move on freely.

Although this meditation subject appears to be foul and repulsive, still it arouses joy and happiness (pÊti and sukha) in him by his seeing its advantages thus: “Surely in this way I shall be liberated from ageing and death.” It is just as a huge garbage heap does to a flower-scavenger who sees the advantages thus: “Now I shall get a high wage.”

This foulness, while of ten kinds, has only one characteristic, which is its impure, stinking, disgusting and repulsive nature. And foulness appears with this characteristic not only in a dead body but also in a living body.

The Elder MahÈ Tissa who lived in CetÊyapabbata saw foulness in a woman’s body which appeared only as a skeleton to him, and the same phenomenon happened to the novice attendant on the Elder SaÑgha-rakkhita while he was watching the king riding an elephant. For a living body is just as foul as a dead one, only the characteristic of foulness is not evident in a living body because it is hidden by temporary adornments.

So a capable person should apprehend the sign wherever the aspect of foulness is manifest, whether in a living body or in a dead one, and should make use of the meditation subject to reach absorption.

If he exercises attention unwisely, sorrow arises in him in recalling the death of beloved ones, joy arises in recalling the death of enemies, no sense of urgency arises in recollecting the death of neutral persons, and fear arises in recollecting one’s death. All these sorrow, joy, fear, and so on, arise in one who lacks mindfulness, sense of urgency, and knowledge.

So he should look here and there at beings who have been killed or have died normally, and recall the death of persons who were formerly seen enjoying good things. He should do thus mindfully with a sense of urgency and with knowledge. Then he can exercise his attention in the way beginning “Death will take place.” By doing so, he is exercising his attention wisely.

Some meditators, by just exercising their attention in this way, can suppress the hindrances, establish their mindfulness on death, and reach access in their mindfulness of death.

1 As having the appearance of a murderer

He should see death as a murderer who appears with a sword, applies it to his neck, ready to cut off his head. Why? Because death comes with birth and it takes away life.

2 As the ruin of success

Here, in this world, prosperity shines so long as it is not overpowered by adversity, and success shines as long as failure does not overcome it. Furthermore, all health ends in sickness, all youthfulness in old age, all life in death.

Besides all worldly existence is procured by birth, haunted by ageing, oppressed by sickness, and struck down by death. This is how death should be recollected as the final ruining of life’s success.

3 By comparing oneself to others

The meditator should be aware of death by comparing himself with others in seven ways, that is to say: with those of great fame, with those of great merit, with those of great strength, with those of great supernormal power, with those of great wisdom, with Paceka Buddhas, with fully Enlightened Buddhas.

As all these people are subject to death and cannot escape death, they have all passed away. So why shouldn’t I be subject to death, and sooner or later taken away by death?

When he does his recollection in this way by comparing himself with others of such great fame, etc., in the light of the universality of death, thinking “Death will come to me as it even did to those distinguished beings”, then his meditation subject reaches access.

4 As the sharing of the body with many

One has to share one’s body with many. Firstly, this body is shared with eighty families of worms. Secondly, it is shared with several hundred internal diseases. Thirdly, it can be brought to death by external causes such as snakes, scorpions, accidents, etc. On account of these causes one may die or meet with danger at any time. So death should be recollected as to sharing the body with many.

5 As to the frailty of life

This life is impotent and frail. For the life of beings is bound up with breathing, with the postures, with cold and heat, with the four primary elements, and with nutriment. If any of these conditions is upset, the life process is interrupted and life can be terminated.

6 By the absence of the sign

The span of life, the sickness which causes death, the time of death, the place where the body will be laid, and the destiny after death are unpredictable and can never be known by the living world as there are no signs which foretell them.
Though there are no signs to foretell them, death may come at any time at any place by any sickness or cause of death. This is how death should be recollected as signless.

7 By being limited in time

The extent of the human life is short. So short in fact is the extent of life that it is not certain even for as long as it takes to chew or swallow four or five mouthfuls. So one should develop mindfulness of death thus, ‘Oh let me live for as long as it takes to chew and swallow a single mouthful that I may attend to the Blessed One’s teaching, surely much could be done by me’ or one should develop mindfulness of death thus, ‘Oh let me live as long as it takes to breathe out and breathe in that I may attend to the Blessed One’s teaching, surely much could be done by me.’
This is how death should be recollected as being limited in time.

8 As to the shortness of the life-moment

In the ultimate sense the life-moment of living beings is extremely short, being only as long as a single consciousness moment. Just as a chariot wheel, when it is rolling, rolls or touches the ground only on one point of the circumference of its wheel, so too, the life of living beings lasts only for a consciousness moment. When that consciousness ceases, the being is said to cease.

According to the instructions given in Visuddhi Magga (i, 222-3) and MahÈsatipaÔÔhÈna Sutta (Ma.i,73) a meditator, who has successfully developed the first jhÈna by reflecting on the foulness of a corpse (asubha bhÈvanÈ), can easily change his meditation to mindfulness of death.

The meditator first recalls the acquired sign or the counter sign of a corpse which he has developed before. He then reflects on its foulness to develop the first jhÈna in asubha-bhÈvanÈ.

He then emerges from this first jhÈna and reflects on the nature of his death thus, ‘This body of mine has the nature to disintegrate; I will surely die; I cannot escape from death.’

He should constantly focus his attention on the nature of his death, establishing mindfulness on death and developing a sense of urgency together with the knowledge of death. Soon he will observe with his mind-eye the disgusting corpse of his dead body in place of the external corpse. Then he discerns with his wisdom the nature of the cutting-off of life-faculty (jivitindriya) in his dead body.

And focussing his meditative mind on the object of the cutting-off of life-faculty, he reflects repeatedly in one of the following ways that he likes best:

1 MaraÓaÑ me dhuvaÑ, jÊvitaÑ me adhuvaÑ
My death is certain, my being alive is uncertain.
2 MaraÓaÑ me bhavissati
My death will certainly occur.
3 MaraÓapariyosÈnaÑ me jÊvitaÑ
My being alive has only death as its end.
4 MaraÓaÑ maraÓaÑ
Death, death.

He should ardently strive to concentrate his meditative mind on the object of the cutting-off of life-faculty in his dead body for one hour, two hours or more. If he is successful, he will find that the jhÈna factors become distinct.

As the object of meditation is the nature of death and frightening, awaking the sense of urgency, only access jhÈna (upacÈra jhÈna) arises.

Lovingkindness is the best weapon to defeat anger, hatred, and resentment. BhuddhÈnussati is the best means to develop clarity of mind, and faith and confidence in the Blessed One.

Asubha bhÈvanÈ is the most effective weapon to subdue lust, craving, and attachment. MaraÓÈnussati is very effective to develop the sense of urgency, and to restrain oneself from improper search for excessive wealth and sensual pleasure.

Therefore, when one gets angry or develops resentment against anyone, one should cultivate lovingkindness. When one lacks faith and confidence, one feels muddled up, one should practise Buddhanussati. When lust arises in one and agitates one, one should recollect the sign of foulness.

When one lacks the sense of urgency and feels idle to practise meditation, one should reflect on the nature of death.

When one is bombarded with various kinds of thoughts and feels restless, one should undertake mindfulness of breathing for ÈnÈpÈnassati is most effective to suppress various thoughts and vitakka.

2 To whom loving-kindness should not be cultivated first? To whom and in what order should it be developed? How should it be developed?

3 How should we develop lovingkindness to attain metta jhÈna?

4 How should we cultivate lovingkindness to attain sÊmÈsambheda?

5 How should we develop 528 modes of metta according to PaÔisambhidÈ pÈÄi?

6 Why is mettÈ-bhÈvanÈ regarded as a sabbatthaka kammaÔÔhÈna? What are its benefits?

7 How should we perform BuddhÈnussati to gain its full benefits?

8 How should we undertake BuddhÈnussati to reach access jhÈna?

9 Describe a quick and effective way of practising BuddhÈnussati to reach upacÈra jhÈna?

10 Why is BuddhÈnussati regarded as a sabbatthaka kammaÔÔhÈna? What are its benefits?

11 Why did the Buddha prescribe asubha-bhÈvanÈ for new bhikkhus? How should one practise it to gain its full benefits?

12 Why is asubha-bhÈvanÈ included in the four guardian meditations? Describe an effective method for developing asubha saÒÒÈ quickly.

13 Should a meditator practise asubha-bhÈvanÈ nowadays? Why? Describe the benefits of practising it?

14 What is ‘maranÈnussati’? How should it be undertaken to reach access known as ‘maranÈnussati’?

15 Describe the eight ways of recollecting death.

16 Why should we practise maranÈnussati? How should it be practised to get its full benefits?